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in the original text.
Equal signs “=” before and after a word or phrase indicate =bold=
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WEBSTER’S PRACTICAL FORESTRY
A POPULAR HANDBOOK ON
THE REARING AND GROWTH OF TREES
FOR PROFIT OR ORNAMENT
BY A. D. WEBSTER
_Author of
“Hardy Ornamental Flowering Trees and Shrubs” (3 Editions),
“Foresters’ Diary” (15 Editions), “Hardy Coniferous Trees”
(2 Editions), “Town Planting,” “Tree Wounds and Diseases,”
“British Timber and Timber-Producing Trees,”
etc., etc._
FIFTH EDITION
ENLARGED AND REVISED
LONDON
WILLIAM RIDER & SON, LIMITED
CATHEDRAL HOUSE, PATERNOSTER ROW, E.C. 4
1917
TO MY WIFE
THE FIFTH EDITION OF “PRACTICAL FORESTRY”
IS DEDICATED
PREFACE TO FIFTH EDITION
To the Author at least, it is gratifying to know that four editions of
_Practical Forestry_ have been sold out, and that a fifth is urgently
called for; no other work on British Forestry having achieved a like
popularity.
The whole has now been completely revised and several important
chapters added, particularly with reference to Timber and the War,
British Timber and Timber Trees, Afforesting Waste Lands, and The
Education of Foresters, on both of which latter questions the Author
had the honour of giving evidence before the Departmental Committee on
Forestry of the Board of Agriculture.
A. D. WEBSTER.
REGENT’S PARK,
_June, 1917_.
INTRODUCTION TO FIFTH EDITION
In my long experience of British Forestry, which, in a practical way,
has extended over a period of forty years, I have become more and more
convinced that in order to place it on a systematic and sound economic
footing, State aid and the afforesting of large areas of comparatively
waste lands are first necessities.
For the past thirty years I have not failed to urge upon the State,
as well as private owners of suitable land, the pressing necessity of
afforestation; and though in this matter a start has been made, yet
this can only be looked upon as a faint, half-hearted attempt quite
unworthy of our country and the vast interests at stake. As early as
1883, I drew attention to this matter in _Woods and Forests_, and at
later periods in most of the leading journals and papers of the day;
while in my evidence given before the Select Committee on Forestry, and
in a paper contributed by special request to the Board of Agriculture,
I went fully into the question, and pointed out what a boon to the
unemployed, and how great a saving to the country would be effected by
a well-organized scheme of tree planting.
Years ago I urged the Government to take up the question of the Larch
disease, the ravages of which I then described as being little short
of a national calamity. To the Highland and Agricultural Society
of Scotland, and the Royal Scottish Arboricultural Society, I have
contributed twenty-three papers on different topics connected with
forestry, for which special medals have been awarded, while my
_Practical Forestry_ has now passed into a fifth edition.
In connection with the afforesting of waste lands, I have travelled
over the greater part of the United Kingdom and have examined much
of the ground that could be set aside for this purpose, including the
peat bogs of Ireland; while at altitudes up to 1,100 ft. I have formed
plantations on the bare and wind-swept hillsides of Wales and Scotland,
which to-day are proving not only a boon to the farmers in the way of
the shelter they afford, but also a considerable source of profit to
the owners.
The above investigations, combined with the examination of and reports
on several of the largest woodland properties in this country, made
at the request of the owners, have given me a wide insight into the
forestry problem generally, but particularly with reference to our
requirements in the near future, in view of the fact that the United
Kingdom is by far the largest timber-importing country in the world.
A. D. W.
CONTENTS
CHAPTER I PAGE
FORESTRY AND THE WAR 1
CHAPTER II
COLLECTING AND STORING TREE SEEDS 8
CHAPTER III
PROPAGATING TREES AND SHRUBS 15
CHAPTER IV
THE HOME NURSERY: ITS FORMATION AND MANAGEMENT 24
CHAPTER V
FORMATION OF PLANTATIONS 32
CHAPTER VI
TREES FOR ECONOMIC PLANTING 47
CHAPTER VII
PLANTING EXPOSED GROUND 68
CHAPTER VIII
SEASIDE PLANTING 73
CHAPTER IX
TOWN PLANTING, AND THE TREES AND SHRUBS THAT ARE
BEST ADAPTED FOR WITHSTANDING SMOKE 87
CHAPTER X
TREES SUITABLE FOR HEDGEROW AND FIELD PLANTING 110
CHAPTER XI
ORNAMENTAL PLANTING 116
CHAPTER XII
TREES BEST ADAPTED FOR VARIOUS SOILS 128
CHAPTER XIII
TRANSPLANTING LARGE TREES 139
CHAPTER XIV
THINNING PLANTATIONS 141
CHAPTER XV
TREE-PRUNING IN ECONOMIC FORESTRY 151
CHAPTER XVI
BRACING AND REPAIRING TREES 159
CHAPTER XVII
COPPICE AND UNDERWOOD 170
CHAPTER XVIII
GAME COVERTS: THEIR FORMATION AND MANAGEMENT 174
CHAPTER XIX
HEDGES: THEIR FORMATION AND MANAGEMENT 184
CHAPTER XX
SHRUBS FOR SHADY SITUATIONS 191
CHAPTER XXI
INSECT ENEMIES OF TREES 193
CHAPTER XXII
FUNGUS GROWTH ON TREES 212
CHAPTER XXIII
BARKING OAK 220
CHAPTER XXIV
THE MANUFACTURE OF CHARCOAL 226
CHAPTER XXV
PRICES OF HOME-GROWN TIMBER 237
CHAPTER XXVI
BRITISH-GROWN TIMBER AND SOME OF ITS USES 240
CHAPTER XXVII
WILLOWS FOR BASKET-MAKING 243
CHAPTER XXVIII
UTILIZING WASTE FOREST PRODUCE 250
CHAPTER XXIX
FENCING PLANTATIONS 257
CHAPTER XXX
TIMBER MEASURING 268
CHAPTER XXXI
BLASTING AND BURNING TREE ROOTS 273
CHAPTER XXXII
PRICES OF CONTRACT OR PIECEWORK 277
CHAPTER XXXIII
FOREST AREA OF THE WORLD 280
CHAPTER XXXIV
AFFORESTING WASTE LANDS AND THE FINANCIAL RETURNS
THEREFROM 282
INDEX 295
LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS
PAGE
Arrangement of Plantations 33
Band and Connecting-Rod 166
Barking Tools 222
Beam Tree in London 103
Beech Tree 50
Blasting and Burning Tree Roots 273
Bracing a Tree 165
Cricket Bat Willow 55
Elm Tree Destroyer 199
Faulkner’s Transplanting Machine 140
Felling Tools 143
Goat Moth 201
Hedging Tools 185
Larch Canker 213
Measuring the Height of Trees 271
Method of Levelling 39
Oak Fences 262
Plan of Nursery 27
Plane Tree in Regent’s Park 99
_Polyporus Sulphureus_ 219
_Polyporus Squamosus_ 216
Pruning Tools 153
Pruning, Bad effects of 155
Rustic Wooden Fence, Strong Mortised Fence,
Strong Paling Fence 262
Sawn Wooden Fence 261
Section of Charcoal Pit 229
Savin Juniper as a Town Shrub 108
Slate Fences 259
Spirit-Level 39
Stone and Wire Fence 257
Tools used in Planting 43
Tools used in Draining 37
Tools required in Nursery 29
Tools for Fencing 264
Tree Guards 266
Weymouth Pine at Gwydyr Castle 61
Wire Fence with Wooden Posts 263
Willow Beetle 197
Wood Leopard Moth 203
Witch’s Broom on Willow 209, 210
WEBSTER’S PRACTICAL FORESTRY
CHAPTER I
FORESTRY AND THE WAR
During the war, and for long afterwards, there is bound to be a dearth
of foreign timber, with the result that our home supplies will be taxed
to the utmost. This, indeed, is already the case, and never before in
the history of our country has the demand for British-grown timber been
greater or prices higher than at the present time.
Plantations in England and Scotland are being cut down wholesale by
the Government, while felling on private estates is going on with such
rapidity that in a couple of years at most there is bound to be a
dearth of all home-grown timber, and of pitwood in particular.
In the aggregate, our supplies are by no means great, the total area at
present under woodlands being only a little over three million acres,
to which, however, must be added the amount of field and hedgerow
timber—a by no means inconsiderable quantity. Of Plantation timber
much is, however, of very inferior quality and only suitable for rough
fencing and mining purposes, and this applies generally to that grown
throughout England, Wales and Ireland. In Scotland, however, there are
large areas of coniferous woods that were planted for purely economic
purposes which will yield a certain amount of valuable timber for
pit-props and other immediate requirements. The felling of Scotch,
Spruce, and coniferous trees will, however, be a blessing in disguise,
for of late years both demand and price for this particular class
of timber have been by no means great and have hardly warranted the
owners of vacant land in undertaking the much-needed extension of our
woodlands. Larch, on the other hand, is scarce and always in demand at
a highly remunerative price, as also are Ash, Oak and Beech of large
size and good quality.
It is useless to go into the question of how long our home supplies
of timber will last, this depending largely on the volume of foreign
importations and the duration of the war, but, judging from present
demands, three years will find our plantations in a more or less
depleted condition. The main question we have to consider and decide,
without delay, is how our cut-over plantations are to be replaced by
the replanting of exhausted woodlands and afforesting some of the waste
lands of our country.
Continental experience has demonstrated that, from a commercial point
of view at least, State-owned forests are preferable to such as are
owned either by public bodies or by private individuals. The resources
and continuity of a nation will always make the State the best
custodian of forest property; indeed, only the State can acquire the
necessary land on the most favourable terms, and in sufficient quantity
for the purposes of extensive afforestation. Private individuals—or,
indeed, public bodies—labour under many disadvantages in this respect,
not the least being the long period required—in most cases from fifty
to sixty years—before the money expended in planting can be even
partially recovered.
Contrary to the conditions obtaining in the raising of agricultural
crops, long periods have to elapse before the forestry harvest can be
reaped. It will be obvious, therefore, that extensive tree planting
is quite beyond the power of the private individual unassisted. It
is a State business, in which systematic methods of cultivation, and
large wooded areas are first necessities; and, unfortunately, in this
country commercial forestry is but little understood—in fact, it may be
described as an unknown industry.
Extensive plantations of from a thousand to several thousand acres
each, in compact blocks, are required, for it is only in dealing with
such areas that the planting, tending, thinning, and conversion of the
timber can be most economically and profitably carried out. From the
purely economic point of view, the many small plantations dotted over
the face of our country are worse than useless, though exceptions might
be noted, especially in Scotland, where a few woods are planted and
managed on a commercial basis.
With compact blocks of forest 2,000 to 4,000 acres in extent, and
with timber crops of mainly the same species in each, a continuity of
supplies could be guaranteed, which under existing circumstances is
quite out of the question. In many outlying districts all over the
country that are far removed from road and rail it is difficult—in
some cases impossible—to dispose of the usually small amount of timber
that is periodically cut down; but were large quantities of the same
kind and a continuity of supply ensured, merchants would be tempted
to make special transit and other arrangements, as well as to offer a
remunerative price for the timber, while railway companies would no
doubt provide cheaper facilities for its transport.
More than once I have been asked by owners of woodlands to recommend
buyers of good Larch, Ash, and other timber, the demand for which far
exceeds the supply; but after negotiating have invariably been told
by the merchants that the quantity offered was too small to allow of
special facilities for delivery being provided, the timber being far
removed from road and rail, but that if a specified number of trees
could be guaranteed annually for a number of years they were quite
prepared to buy. Such cases occurred in the South and West of Ireland,
and in remote parts of Wales and Scotland. These, then, are cases in
which a continuity of supply—such as would be quite possible if an
extensive scheme of afforesting was carried out—would ensure speedy
sales at fair rates in places where at present it is difficult, if
not impossible, to dispose of the small quantities of timber, even at
ruinously low prices.
The question, then, before the nation is: How, and by whom, is
afforestation to be carried out on a scale commensurate with our
necessities as by far the largest timber-importing country in the
world?—larger, indeed, than all the countries of Europe put together.
In answer, and without the slightest hesitation, I would say that the
State should acquire and plant suitable lands at the rate of 40,000
acres annually for a period of twenty-five years, or 1,000,000 in all.
When we consider that the total area of woodlands in this country is
only a little in excess of 3,071,000 acres, that fully 17,000,000 acres
of waste lands exist, and that we annually import over 10,000,000
tons of timber at a cost of about £25,000,000, the necessity for an
increased area of woodlands, so that a portion at least of this vast
sum may be kept at home, will be apparent to all, the more so as a
dearth of timber is imminent and outside supplies are being rigidly
conserved, while our home demands are ever on the increase.
In order to carry out my proposed scheme of planting a million acres
during the next five years, at the rate of 200,000 acres annually,
profitable and healthy employment would at once be found for several
thousand workmen. The question of transporting, housing and otherwise
dealing with these workmen has been brought forward as the most serious
drawback to the scheme, but, personally, having had to deal with such
cases I can see no insuperable difficulty in the undertaking. Surely,
if our railway and water companies, as also private landowners, can
deal with hundreds of men in remote mountain districts that are far
removed from road and rail, the Government could make the necessary
arrangements for the various bodies of workmen that would be employed
for afforesting purposes. Nor must tree planting be considered as a
new departure for unemployed labour, as in the formation of a large
plantation on a dreary exposed hillside in Wales, the whole of the
work, including clearing the ground of rough surface growth, draining,
pitting and planting, was most successfully carried out by detachments
of the unemployed.
The general physique of Army and Navy men and the discipline and hard
work to which they have been subjected during the war will render them
peculiarly suitable for carrying out the various operations connected
with the formation of plantations. Convalescent soldiers and sailors
could also find healthy employment in the various lighter tasks which
go hand in hand with afforestation, such as clearing the ground of
rough growing vegetation and lifting and distributing the young trees.
Several suggestions have been made for providing employment for our
returned soldiers and sailors, but much of this proposed work is, so to
speak, invented for the purpose, and would probably never be seriously
considered except for the exigencies of the case. Now I am quite of
opinion that afforesting waste lands offers a sensible system of
employment, for it is now generally admitted that a largely increased
area of our woodlands is an imperative and pressing necessity, and what
is of equal importance, the undertaking, if wisely entered upon, would
not only increase the value of such lands fourfold but form the nucleus
of an ever-increasing revenue of the State.
But this is not all, for apart altogether from the question of
immediate labour, what an industry would be opened up in years to come
by the planting of waste grounds! In the first instance there would
arise the necessity for clearing, fencing, draining, and planting the
ground, subsequently the tending of the plantations in various ways
would give employment. Thinning would commence about the tenth year,
after which the erection of sawmills and the conversion of the timber
would open a vast and ever-increasing industry, providing highly
remunerative work to thousands of the unemployed.
There are other ways in connection with forestry in which the
unemployed could be usefully and profitably set to work, such as in
preparing osier beds, planting dogwood for gunpowder charcoal, and in
the formation and stocking of tree nurseries, the produce of which
could with advantage be used in the formation of plantations. Osiers
for basket-making, charcoal for gunpowder and heating purposes, and
seedling plants for afforestation will all be greatly in demand after
the war when foreign supplies will not be forthcoming.
Regarding the most desirable centres at which to commence planting
operations, I would suggest those counties where the greatest areas of
waste lands exist, and where, in addition, advantages are offered in
the matter of cheap land purchase, as well as in a demand for and easy
removal of the produce. Thus we have:—
England Yorkshire and Northumberland with 1,010,924 acres.
Scotland Inverness and Argyleshire with 3,087,312 acres.
Wales Breconshire and Merionethshire with 461,320 acres.
Ireland Donegal and Kerry with 657,337 acres
(exclusive of 172,436 acres of bogland).
From these figures it will be seen that in case of necessity we could
get all the ground required for this afforesting scheme in two of the
counties of England and Scotland, or in three of Wales and Ireland.
The cost of procuring suitable land for afforesting purposes need
not be considered as any obstacle to the scheme. From extensive
inquiries made the price on an average would not be greater than £2
per acre. Through the kindness of the agent on the Gwydyr Estate, in
Carnarvonshire, I have been allowed to look over the sale contracts on
several of the properties, and from these I find that 7,412 acres were
disposed of at an average price of £2 2_s._ 3_d._ per acre. The ground
was excellent for the production of timber, as the Larch on adjoining
lands clearly evidenced. Again, the Crown recently purchased 12,500
acres in Scotland at the modest rental of £2 per acre. Many other
instances could be quoted, but the above suffice to show that land
in every way suitable for the production of high-grade timber can be
bought at probably less than £2 per acre.
The cost of forming plantations has been very carefully considered, and
for all practical purposes may be put down at £5 per acre, taking the
British Isles as a whole.
Regarding financial returns from tree planting, there is overwhelming
proof that land worth only from 1_s._ to 3_s._ 6_d._ per acre has been
made to realise as much as 20_s._ per acre for fifty or sixty years,
with a final crop worth from £50 to £75 per acre.
Taking all the above points into consideration—the price of land,
the cost of planting and the financial returns—it will amply repay
the State to plant up uncultivated and waste lands. There should
be no loss of time in setting about this work if we are to provide
suitable employment for our returned soldiers and sailors and avoid the
threatened timber famine which, according to well-informed quarters, is
fast approaching.
CHAPTER II
COLLECTING AND STORING TREE SEEDS
Owing to the war there is little doubt that for several years to come
adequate supplies of seeds and young forest trees will not be available
from their usual sources on the Continent. Vast quantities of both are
annually sent to this country from Germany alone, while from other
parts of the Continent coniferous seeds in particular are largely
imported—in fact, we are almost wholly dependent for both seeds and
seedlings on foreign supplies.
Under these circumstances, it behoves the owners of woodlands in every
part of the country to collect seeds, particularly of such trees
as our plantations are mainly composed of. After these have been
properly harvested, they should be stored away in suitable places till
seed-sowing time in the spring. To some extent this will be a new
forest industry, though for long, the seeds both of Scotch Pine and
various hard-wooded trees, particularly the Oak, Ash and Elm, have been
annually collected on various estates throughout the country, and the
young plants raised from such stock have given every satisfaction when
planted out permanently.
For several reasons, however, we cannot compete with foreigners either
in the production of seeds or in raising young forest stock. For some
years to come, owing to the uncertainty of supplies from abroad, both
seeds and seedlings are bound to be scarce and expensive.
In the past, far too little attention has been bestowed on the
collecting and harvesting of the seeds of trees and shrubs, the result,
in not a few cases, being weak and unhealthy plants and an uneven and
irregular crop. The best seeds, it should be remembered, are those
collected from healthy trees in the prime of life, and grown under
conditions favourable to their perfect development. An unhealthy tree
will often bear a heavy crop of seed, but although the inducements to
collect such are great, they should be discarded, those from the most
robust specimens in the prime of life being chosen in preference.
Regarding the best way of collecting tree seeds little need be said,
the exigencies of the case determining the best method to be adopted.
The seeds of not a few trees may be collected as they fall, and this
is especially the case with those of the Oak, Beech, Elm, etc., all of
which may be swept into heaps and gathered in quantity from beneath
desirable trees.
In the case of the various Coniferæ this method of seed collecting
will not answer—indeed, in the majority of instances, the seed should
be gathered, or rather picked, from the trees just before they became
fully ripe, as in falling they get loose from the cone-scales and
are lost. When collecting the cones of coniferous trees, a long,
light hooked staff with which to draw the branches towards one can
conveniently be used to procure an abundant supply. A bag or satchel
should also be in possession of the seed collector, into which may be
put such kinds of cones as fall readily apart, as the seeds from these
are easily lost. Sometimes, as in the case of rare seeds, and when only
a few cones are borne near the top of the tree, the seed collector
must have recourse to climbing; but, in such cases, in order to avoid
injury to the bark, he should be provided with a pair of elastic shoes
or slippers. Great care is required in the collection of such seeds as
those of _Abies nobilis_ and _A. nordmanniana_, the cones, when fully
ripe, falling to pieces on the slightest touch. This, however, applies
equally to almost every species of Abies, whereas, with the Pines and
Spruces, the cones remain intact for an almost indefinite period of
time, even though the seeds may have fallen out on becoming ripe.
The proper harvesting of tree seeds rarely, except in the case of
experienced nurserymen, receives sufficient attention, although this
operation should be as carefully attended to as in the case of the
seeds of any other form of crop. After being collected, the seeds
of all trees, unless such as are mixed with sand for the purpose of
rotting, should be thinly and evenly spread out in a sunny spot, until
thoroughly dry. They may then be deposited in a cool, airy place,
and in thin layers, until wanted for sowing. An occasional turning
is all-important and should never be neglected. The smaller and less
common seeds may, for convenience sake, be hung up in calico bags, but
they, too, should be occasionally examined to prevent dampness and
heating.
The number of plants of various kinds that may be expected from
a bushel of seed of average quality varies very much, and may be
approximately given as follows: Horse Chestnut, 2,500; Oak, 6,000 to
8,000; Spanish Chestnut, about 3,000; Walnut, 5,000; Norway Maple,
12,000; Sycamore, about 12,000; Ash, 14,000; Beech, 10,000; Elm, 1,000;
Birch, fully 16,000; Holly, 17,000; Scotch Fir, 9,000. To 1 lb. of
seed: Spruce Fir, about 9,000; Larch, 3,000; and the Cluster Pine,
Silver Fir, and some others, from about 500 upwards.
For convenience in regulating orders for sowing, the following table
will show at a glance the approximate and relative number of seeds of
the various commonly cultivated forest trees contained in 1 lb. weight:—
Abies nobilis about 19,400
Abies nordmanniana ” 10,000
Ash ” 6,800
Beech ” 2,700
Douglas Fir ” 95,200
Horse Chestnut ” 36
Hornbeam ” 9,968
Larch ” 65,000
Lawson’s Cypress ” 131,400
Lebanon Cedar ” 10,800
Norway Maple ” 4,600
Oak ” 100
Pinus Austriaca ” 35,000
Pinus Laricio ” 43,000
Pinus Pinaster ” 12,000
Pinus Sylvestris ” 75,000
Spruce ” 64,500
Silver Fir ” 14,960
Sycamore ” 4,624
Walnut ” 36
These figures must only be taken as approximate, the seed of various
trees of the same species seeming to vary in the number to the pound
in a marked degree. The results of careful analysis of one or two
kinds may be cited as examples. In one case the number of seeds in 1
lb. weight of Scotch Fir was 69,600, while in another it had increased
to 90,600; and in the Larch the numbers were 33,900 and 68,000. These
differences are, however, mainly due to the individual seeds being
weightier in one case than in another, probably owing to the age and
health of the tree from which they were collected, the situation and
exposure to which it was subjected, etc. However, for all nursery
purposes the above figures may be accepted as a fair standard.
The time of collecting and the after-management of the different
forest seeds vary so much that a brief description of those kinds most
commonly planted will be found useful:—
=Alder= seed should be gathered from the trees in October and sown in
spring, say May.
=Ash= seeds are ripe in October, when they should be collected and kept
in moist sand during the winter, and sown in March.
=Austrian=, =Corsican= and =Weymouth Pine= seeds are treated in every
respect like those of Scotch Fir, varying the kiln heat according to
the looseness of the cone-bracts.
=Beech= seeds are collected in October and November, placed in sand,
and sown in April. The young plants are readily affected by frost, and
the seed should, therefore, not be sown earlier than the time mentioned.
=Birch= seed must be collected from the trees just before it becomes
ripe in August, otherwise it is scattered broadcast and lost for
cultivation. March is the time for sowing.
=Cupressus Lawsoniana= seed is usually ready for collecting in October,
but should not be sown before the first week in April.
=Douglas Fir= seed is, in most cases, readily removed from well-ripened
cones by threshing or by pulling the cone to pieces, but, in some
instances, particularly where the quantity is large, kiln-drying is
resorted to. The seeds are ripe in December and should be gently
watered and sown in May.
=Elm= seeds are ripe in June, when they may either be sown at once, or
dried and kept in stock for planting in March and April.
=Hawthorn= seed, or berries, may be sown when collected, or the outer
coating rotted off by keeping them during the winter in moist sand.
=Hazel= nuts may be collected in autumn and sown at once, or kept till
spring.
=Holly= berries require to be placed in sand for about eighteen months
so as to rot off the fleshy outer coating, and may be sown in March.
The mixture of sand and berries, which should be about in equal
proportions, must be turned frequently. They are usually sown with the
sand in which they have been lying.
=Horse= and =Spanish Chestnut= seeds may be taken together, the method
of collecting and sowing being very similar in both cases. They are
ripe by the middle of October, and may either be sown at once or kept
till spring. One seed to 4 square in. will be close enough.
=Larch= cones, when ripe, are of a rather bright brown colour and
require to be collected from the trees. This should not, however, be
done till spring, though occasionally they are gathered in December.
They part with the seeds far more readily than those of the Scotch Fir,
and consequently require less heat when in the kiln.
=Maple= seeds are ready for collecting about October, and should not be
sown till the beginning of April.
=Mountain Ash=, indeed, all the Pyrus family and others of a like kind,
require the berries to be placed in sand, and when the outer fleshy
coating has rotted away they may be sown either in autumn or spring.
=Oak.=—The acorns may be gathered or swept from the ground in November,
and either sown at once or stored away in a cool, dry place till
Spring. One acorn to every 4 square in. will be ample in the seed-bed.
Sow in spring or autumn.
=Scotch Fir= cones are better not collected till early in January, and
the time may even be extended till March. When quite ripe they have
changed from bluish-green to a light, grey colour. As the cones part
tardily with the seeds, artificial means have to be resorted to, the
cones being placed thinly over a kiln heated to a temperature of from
75° to 112°. They should be turned every third hour, and after about
thirty hours the kiln should be cooled down and the cones extracted
as quickly as possible. By beating with a flail the seeds are readily
removed from the cones, but it is best to do this before the cones have
cooled down or immediately they are removed from the kiln. The seeds
are then swept together and collected, and stored away until wanted
for sowing. When not required for sowing at once, the seeds should
be thinly spread out on the floor and slightly moistened with water
from a fine rose watering-can. They should then be turned about until
perfectly dry before being stored away.
=Silver Fir= seed does not require much, if any, artificial heat to
cause it to part from the cone. By placing the cones in the sunshine,
and heating and turning freely, the seeds come out without much
trouble. In all cases, however, wherever possible, it is wise policy to
dispense with artificial heat or kiln-drying as, unless this is carried
out most carefully, the vitality of the seeds is greatly impaired
thereby.
=Sycamore= seeds are ready for gathering in October, but should not be
sown till the end of March or beginning of April.
=Walnuts= are collected, when ripe, in autumn, and sown in late spring.
=Yew= seeds are usually washed of the pulpy matter before being sown.
In the case of large seeds, such as those of =Araucaria imbricata=,
=Pinus sabiniana=, and =P. macrocarpa=, the best way is to cut the
cones to pieces and carefully remove the seeds. This operation should
be performed with great care, so that the hard seed coating may not be
injured.
With conifers in general I have invariably found it the best plan to
allow the seed to remain in the cones until wanted for sowing. By
keeping the cones in a cool, dry place, and occasionally turning them
over, there need be little fear but that the seeds will turn out well.
CHAPTER III
PROPAGATING TREES AND SHRUBS
There are several methods of propagating trees and shrubs: such as by
seed-sowing, from cuttings or layers, and by budding and grafting.
=From Seed.=—This natural process of reproduction is that most commonly
adopted where large numbers of trees are required—indeed, certain
species, particularly of the Coniferæ, cannot successfully be raised
in any other way. The preparation of the seed-beds is a point that
deserves far more attention than it usually receives, and that not
only on economic grounds, but in view of the general appearance of the
nursery borders as well. To tumble the seeds indiscriminately into
the ground as if they had fallen in showers from the trees is highly
objectionable; and just as censurable is the too-oft-repeated practice
of sowing these in rough, cloddy, and ill-prepared ground.
Systematic arrangement in the laying out of the beds, as to the number
and requirements of the future seedlings, should also be attended to.
The ground intended for seed-beds should be trenched or deeply dug up;
but this operation would, for the mellowing and cleaning of the soil,
be better performed the autumn before than at the time of sowing down.
In any case, just before sowing, the ground should be carefully turned
over, all hard clods being broken down, and large stones raked off,
the surface soil to the depth of 3 in. or 4 in. being made as fine as
possible. Dry weather must be chosen for the formation of seed-beds,
as also, indeed, for the sowing of the seeds. The beds are marked off
and prepared as follows:—A light, strong line is stretched along the
ground at, say, 3 ft. from the boundary fence or path, and, after
being fixed at each end, the first alley, or path, is marked out by
treading the soil alongside of the line. The length of the bed thus
marked off on one side is quite immaterial, but the width is of great
importance, and should never exceed 4 ft.; 3 ft. 6 in. is nearer the
mark.
Adjoining this first line, a bed the above width is marked off with
a peg or stake at each end, the line reset and a second alley marked
off. The alley, or path, between each couple of beds need not exceed
15 in. in width, this being for the sake of convenience in sowing,
weeding, watering, shading, and otherwise attending to the bed, and
its occupants. Outside this follows a second bed, and so on, until
the desired number has been formed. Some persons raise the seed-beds
a little above the level of the paths, but, except in very retentive
or damp soils, this is not to be recommended. The beds should in
no instance, however, be below the level of the paths. There are
two methods employed in opening up and preparing the beds for the
reception of the seeds either of which, if carefully gone about, is
well suited for the exigencies of the case. My own way has always
been to level and smooth the surface of the bed with a small-toothed
rake, and after sowing the seeds to cover lightly with fine soil and
ashes carefully sifted over the bed by means of a small-meshed riddle.
This plan has many advantages, not the least important being the
covering of the seeds to an equal depth, and the employing of only the
finest class of soil. The other method is by using what is termed a
“cuffing-board”—that is, a board about 8 in. wide, placed on a handle,
which is inserted in the centre, towards the back, the handle being
fully 5 ft. long. A skilled person is required to use this tool, who
stands in the alley, first on one side of the bed, and then on the
other, pushing or drawing towards him from the surface of the bed a
thin coating of soil along its full length and from about two-thirds of
its surface.
As to the amount or depth of soil taken off, this is regulated by the
particular kind of seed to be sown, as well as the nature of the soil.
The next matter, the depth at which the seed should be sown, is one
of great importance. Usually seeds are sown unnecessarily deep. In
the majority of cases a safe guide is to place the seed, of whatever
kind it may be, about three diameters below the surface of the soil.
The conditions most favourable to germination are moderate dampness,
abundance of air, and a temperature of about 45°. In order to ensure
these conditions, the depth at which the seeds are placed will be
seen to be of the greatest moment. Generally speaking, the less seeds
are covered, consistently with their receiving a sufficient supply of
moisture, the better, and but for their destruction by birds, many
of the smaller seeds would vegetate just as well if cast upon the
ground-surface, and pressed in, as by being covered with soil. The
following interesting experiments with Scotch fir seeds have been made:—
“Those buried one-fifth of an inch came up first,
but were subsequently less vigorous—they soon,
however, acquired vigour;
“Those covered from one-third to one-half of an inch
came up more slowly, but evenly and strong;
“Those buried from two-thirds of an inch to one inch
came up in deficient numbers; and
“Those buried from one to two inches never showed any
signs of germination.”
These statements are equally applicable to the sowing of seeds in
general but especially if their relative size and the hardness of their
covering are taken into account.
Immediately after the bed is prepared the seed should be sown, the
amount used varying according to quality, which latter may readily be
tested by examining the embryos of a dozen seeds picked up at random
from the heap. To ascertain whether seeds are good, the simplest way
is to cut the sheath open with a sharp penknife, when the kernel ought
to completely fill the entire coating or shell. Small seeds might be
crushed by the nail, and if good, will leave traces of moisture or
emit an odour of turpentine. Another method is to place, one after
the other, say a dozen seeds taken at haphazard from the heap, on a
red-hot iron. If good they will turn about with a cracking report; but
if otherwise, combustion is slow and smoke is given off.
Seed may, however, be considered good if the germinating test gives,
say, 70 per cent.
The quantity of seed to be sown on a given area will depend mainly on
the quality and particular species.
When sown broadcast, about a pound weight of larch, and full half a
pound of Scotch, is allowed per 100 square ft. of seed-bed.
Generally, however, drill sowing is resorted to, and in this case the
following may be considered as about an average of the quantity used
per 100 square ft.:
Alder 7¾ ozs.
Ash 5 ”
Austrian Pine 4¼ ”
Birch 6½ ”
Elm 3½ ”
Hornbeam 2¾ ”
Larch 7½ ”
Maple 5 ”
Scotch fir 2¾ ”
Silver ” 13 ”
Spruce ” 3½ ”
Sometimes a small quantity of guano or other manure is sprinkled over
the seeds, after which they are gently pressed down with a light
roller, and the soil, which was temporarily deposited along the margin
of the bed, replaced by the “cuffing-board” or riddle. When seeds are
sown early, and with care, on well-prepared ground, watering is seldom
necessary; but still, with small seeds and in very dry ground, an
occasional sprinkling the last thing at night is highly beneficial.
Great care is, however, necessary to ensure the soil being thoroughly
moistened. Protection from mice and birds must be afforded in some such
manner as by coating the seeds with red lead; and an occasional shading
of the bed in very warm weather might be advocated. There are not a few
kinds of seeds, such as those with a hard covering, that it is almost
imperative to steep in water before sowing. Larch seed, in particular,
can be soaked for a week without fear or harm, and many leguminous
seeds for two or three days with great advantage. Some seeds do not
come up until the second year, such as the ash, pyrus, thorn, etc., and
in these cases it is but a waste of ground to sow them as collected.
They should be mixed with sand, as before directed, and stored away for
a year before being sown.
It should also be remembered that, as a rule, the sooner seeds are sown
after being collected, the stronger will be the young plants.
Soon after germination, hand weeding must be commenced, and this may
most successfully be performed after a shower of rain, as the young
plants then suffer less from loosening of the soil, consequent on
pulling out the weeds, than would be the case in dry and warm weather.
The above method of raising plants from seeds will be found suitable in
most cases, but in respect of choice or half-hardy trees the shelter
afforded by a frame is usually provided. In this case the seeds are
sown in pots or shallow boxes, according to quantity, and placed in an
unheated frame.
The best time for seed-sowing is from the first to the fifteenth of
April.
Transplanting the young seedlings may be taken in hand usually after
the first year, but no hard and fast line can be laid down, so much
depending on the season and rate of growth of the young plants. The
experienced eye can always tell when seedlings should be lined out. The
best time for this operation is after the spring frosts are at an end,
for, if planted out in the autumn, the frost is apt to lift the tiny
seedlings wholesale from the ground.
After this they should be transplanted at least every second year until
planted out permanently.
=By Cuttings.=—Propagating trees and shrubs from cuttings is at once a
simple and inexpensive way of getting up a stock of such kinds as may
be increased in that way. The best months are August and September, at
which time the temperature of the earth and air are equal, and roots
are most readily emitted.
Choose a sheltered and partially shady border for the insertion of the
cuttings, and be sure that the soil is not stiff and water-logged, but
fine, rather inclined to sandy, and moderately dry. It should be well
forked over and cleaned of weeds, large stones being also removed.
The cuttings may be made of the present year’s growth, with a small
portion—“heel” it is generally termed—of the old wood, and cut clean
across beneath where a bud or shoot has protruded. Until a sufficient
quantity has been made, they should be stuck loosely in a heap of sand
or soil, and in the shade. Cuttings should be taken from the sunny side
of a tree or shrub.
In planting the cuttings, stretch a garden line along the previously
prepared ground, and, having removed a trench about 6 in. deep, by
cutting in a perpendicular manner with a spade along the front of the
line, proceed to place the cuttings not too closely together, and
leaning somewhat backwards in the trench cut out. This being done, it
is always well, so as to hasten the formation of roots, to sprinkle a
small quantity of sand or grit along at the base of the cuttings, at
the same time regulating these as to their distances apart and upward
inclination, the remaining portion of the trench being filled up with
the soil formerly removed. Firm tramping is one of the chief points to
be observed, as cuttings will not take at all quickly in loose soil.
The line should then be moved forwards about 12 in. and the same method
of procedure followed until the whole of the cuttings are inserted. For
such shrubs as the common and Portugal laurel, privet, box, euonymus,
laurestinus, aucuba, etc., the above method will be found the quickest
and best for raising young plants from cuttings. It should be stated
that cuttings taken from the sunny side of a tree or shrub always root
more freely, and turn out a greater number of plants, than such as have
been cut from the shady side—indeed, this point should be carefully
borne in mind and acted upon. Conifers, such as the various species of
Cupressus, Juniperus, the Wellingtonia, etc., are also readily raised
from cuttings inserted in the ground out of doors. It is, however,
well to put such cuttings in boxes, so that they have the advantage of
being placed in an unheated frame, this greatly enhancing the speedy
formation of roots. Two or three large frames are always useful in
the nursery for the reception of choice cuttings, seeds, etc., and
if boxes, say, 24 in. by 14 in. by 5 in., are made just to suit the
dimensions of the frames, a great number of young plants, cuttings, and
seeds of the less common kinds will find a beneficial protection. The
boxes should be made of stout wood, and have six holes bored in the
bottom of each, so that the excess water may readily pass away. Before
planting these, fill each with a mixture of half sand, half soil,
broken finely down, the cuttings being inserted in small holes made by
a sharp-pointed stick. A thin coating of sand placed on the surface
will greatly facilitate the process of rooting. Cuttings of coniferous
trees should have 2 in. of ripened wood attached to them, and be
inserted 4 in. deep in the ground; while, for most others, the cuttings
may be 8 in. long, 3 in. being inserted in the soil.
=From Layers.=—For increasing game coverts, shrubberies, or some of
those trees and shrubs that cannot well and speedily be raised from
cuttings or seed, layering will be found a convenient and cheap method.
There are several other advantages too, as no protection of any kind
is necessary, and the risk of loss is reduced to a minimum. It is,
however, generally resorted to as a means of increasing such plants as
cannot readily be raised from cuttings, and applies with greatest force
to the rhododendrons and azaleas, the magnolias, coniferæ of various
kinds, and several species of our hardy deciduous trees.
The operation of layering is very simple, and consists merely in
bending down the outer branch of a tree or shrub and bringing it in
contact with the soil, it being there held in position by means of
a hooked peg. Before fastening the layer with the peg, it is well,
however, to remove a portion of the bark from that part of the layer
that is to be brought in contact with the ground, this arresting the
flow of sap and hastening the formation of roots. The soil beneath
the tree or shrub should be first loosened, and, if found hard and
stiff, a small quantity of sand and leaf soil might with advantage be
added. The same principle is carried out in all kinds of layering, but
the position of the plant will alter the method of bending over and
bringing in contact with the soil. In the case of layering coniferæ it
is not only necessary to bend over and peg down the branch, but, so as
to form a leader and assist in gaining an upright position, it should
also be tied or staked in a vertical position. Generally speaking,
trees and shrubs require two years before the branches that are layered
are sufficiently well rooted to be removed from the parent, but a few
kinds require nearly double that time before they can be severed with
safety. A good plan is, after the second or third year, to cut through
the layered branch behind the point that is brought in contact with the
ground, and to let it remain in position for another year. It may then,
except in a very few cases, be lifted and lined out with others in the
nursery border, the object being to get it into a good habit of growth
before being finally planted out.
Most varieties of trees and shrubs can readily be increased by layering
the side branches in the way above described, and it is a good plan to
cover over with a spadeful of earth that part of the branch brought in
contact with the ground.
=By Grafting.=—This may best be described as a makeshift method of
increasing trees and shrubs. It has only a few advantages, and many
disadvantages, as is well known to every one on a large estate who goes
in for collections of the less common kinds of trees and shrubs.
If a plant cannot be increased conveniently by any of the above methods
grafting may be resorted to, but the work should only be entrusted
to those who have great practical knowledge of the art, and who have
paid particular attention to the evils attending injudicious grafting.
Some of the errors in grafting may be cited as follows: Working on too
tall stocks whereby an unnatural appearance and continual source of
danger in windy weather are brought about; grafting small scions on
large stocks, and grafting evergreen on deciduous species—all of which
have tended, in a marked degree, to lower the art in the opinion of
horticulturists generally.
The grafting of conifers may be performed at one of two seasons: either
early in spring or about the month of August. Two-year-old stock are
mostly to be preferred, so that the stock and scion may be of as near
a size as possible. Several methods of grafting are adopted, but that
generally practised is what is known as “side grafting.” This consists
in making a clean cut in the stem, downwards, for about an inch in
length. A transverse cut is made at the termination of this first cut,
whereby a piece of the bark wood is removed from the side of the stock.
The scion is next prepared by being cut off square at the end, and one
side of the wood shaved off for about an equal length to the cut on the
stock. Place the scion in the notch made on the stock, and be careful
that the barks, on one side at least, come neatly together, for on this
hangs the whole fate of successful grafting. The scion should, indeed,
be made to fit as nearly as possible and replace the wedge cut from the
stock. Tie firmly and carefully with bast matting, and cover over with
prepared clay or grafting wax. Another method consists in making an
incision obliquely in the stock, the scion being so prepared that one
side of it forms a sharp edge, in order that it may be readily inserted
therein, the bark of the scion and stock coming neatly together. Tie
with matting as before directed, and cover over with clay or grafting
wax. Inarching, or grafting by approach, consists in bringing the scion
into union with the stock without detaching it from its own stem, and
the separation is not made until the new connection has been formed.
=Budding.=—This is usually performed in July, and in the case of
certain shrubs has been found useful. The bud should, in addition to
its strip of bark, have a portion of the cambium attached, as unless
this be present to unite with the cambium of the stock the operation
will fail.
The bark of the stock is cut into a =T= shape, opened with the end
of the budding knife, and the bud slipped neatly in. Bast matting
will serve for tying, until a junction takes place, which is usually
effected in five or six weeks.
CHAPTER IV
THE HOME NURSERY: ITS FORMATION AND MANAGEMENT
In the course of my experience on large estates where planting has
been extensively engaged in, few things have been more particularly
impressed upon me than the importance of having a well-managed and
well-stocked home nursery, where the propagating and raising of
trees and shrubs required for forest and ornamental planting may be
taken in hand. The numerous advantages of a home nursery, especially
where planting is extensively carried out, are now so well known and
appreciated by every proprietor of large estates that comment on this
subject seems almost unnecessary.
Where ornamental planting, the formation of woods and plantations, game
coverts, or hedging is performed on an extensive scale, the convenience
of a home nursery cannot be over-valued, the plants being at hand when
wanted, of the size and in the quantity required, and known to be well
rooted, sturdy, and free from disease.
The advantages in these cases are too well known to require comment,
and plants, more especially those of a large size, sent from even a
short distance by either road or rail, cannot be expected to succeed
equally with those raised and planted on the same day. The extra soil,
or ball, with which large plants can be removed for a short distance is
also much in their favour, but it is next to impossible to retain this
where packing and transit have to be resorted to.
It is well known that too sudden a change from rich, well-sheltered
nursery borders to bare, exposed hillsides often proves fatal to
young plants; and, when we consider that few public nurseries are at
a greater elevation than about 500 ft., the necessity of proprietors
rearing their own stock, whose plantations are, perhaps, upwards of
1,000 ft. above sea-level, will the more readily be seen. There are
certain difficulties to contend with in planting high-lying ground,
more especially if the soil is poor and thin, and the situation
exposed, and in these cases the advantage of using hardy plants that
have frequently been transplanted in a well-chosen home nursery at
a fair altitude is very noticeable, especially when contrasted with
others that have been grown under more favourable circumstances and
in a sheltered position. Some plants seem better adapted than others
for this removal, but in the majority of cases the shock sustained by
transferring from low-lying ground to that at a great elevation is only
too apparent, and one from which the plants seldom recover. The same
holds good in the case of seaside and town planting.
Of late years in particular, a good deal of comment has taken place
as to the necessity of rearing trees from seed sown on the site of
the future plantation, and although the suggestion has many points in
its favour, still artificial planting is better adapted to the wants
of our country, and is not at all likely to be superseded by natural
reproduction, which is more fitted for countries differently situated
from our own.
The nursery treatment of plants is, therefore, sure to remain a
prominent feature of British forestry, and this being the case, the
soil and situation, as well as the most successful treatment of these,
with a view to producing plants suitable for the positions they are
intended to occupy, will require due consideration. This will vary much
according to the situation of the estate and ground to be planted. In
choosing the site of a home nursery, a great deal will depend on the
general elevation and exposure of the estate. The situation should
neither be too much exposed nor yet too sheltered, and should have a
southern or western aspect; for, although too sudden a change from
sheltered to exposed ground often proves fatal to young trees, this
should not altogether form a criterion for rearing them in situations
unfavourable to the development of strong, healthy plants. The soil
should be good, friable loam, on an open, porous subsoil; but the
quality of ground required for different seedlings is so diversified
that it is next to impossible to suit all within the small bounds
required for a home nursery.
As water is indispensable where seedlings are raised, as well as for
numerous other purposes in the nursery, it is well to have provision
made for a continuous supply, either by a stream running through the
ground, or in close contiguity to it, or by having a pipe laid on from
the main water-supply.
From six acres to ten or even fifteen acres will be found sufficient
nursery ground for most estates, but it is always advisable to add
a little more than is really required, so that the brakes may not
be all under forest trees at the same time, but undergo, when found
necessary, a course of green crops, which will not only enrich, but
clean, the ground and leave it in good condition for replanting with
seedling forest plants, bearing in mind that farmyard manure should
always be applied first to the green crop, and never directly to the
plants themselves. When a plot has become impoverished by repeated
croppings of forest trees, a heavy coating of well-decomposed farmyard
manure should be applied, and the ground planted with potatoes, or sown
down with turnips. This has an almost magical effect in improving,
regenerating, and cleaning the ground, and leaving it in the best
possible condition for receiving a crop of forest plants. Land intended
for nursery ground should be thoroughly trenched to the full depth of
the soil, taking care, at the same time, that the best soil is kept
within a reasonable distance of the surface, and, where necessary,
heavily manured or enriched by the addition of lime, vegetable soil, or
loam as the case may be.
In laying out the ground into brakes it will be found convenient to
have these either square or rectangular in shape and, if possible,
parallel with each other. The brakes should be of different sizes, and
divided from each other by walks or hedges, but the fewer of the latter
the better. It is well for convenience sake to have a border, say from
12-15 ft. wide, running around the nursery, which may be stocked with
such trees and shrubs as are only limited in demand. A narrow border
like this is of great value, too, for planting out seedling stock of
the less common kinds, for the insertion of cuttings of the rarer
shrubs, as well as for any odds and ends that may be collected.
[Illustration: PLAN OF NURSERY.
Roadway, 9 ft. wide; Paths, 4 ft. wide; Border, 12 ft. wide.]
The site chosen for the seed-beds should be naturally sheltered, or
failing this, such artificial shelter as is found necessary should be
provided, as exposure of the young plants to cold, cutting winds causes
them to become stunted and bark-bound. There should be a few cold
frames for raising choice seeds and cuttings, but, as a rule, the less
glass the better. In stocking the home nursery, it is always preferable
to buy young plants of the kinds most needed, as also a few older
specimens of such kinds as it may be deemed advisable to propagate
from layers or by cuttings. Seedlings of many trees and shrubs can be
procured from plantations on the estate, and when such are grown on,
and carefully transplanted for two, three, or four years in the nursery
borders, they soon form stout, bushy, and well-rooted specimens of the
greatest value for forest-planting. This is a good and comparatively
inexpensive way of getting up a stock of many trees and shrubs, but
particularly such as are reproduced plentifully in a wild state. In the
management of a home nursery the amount of care and attention required
is certainly great; but any trouble, as well as expense, connected with
starting and keeping it in good condition afterwards will be amply
repaid by the increased value and superiority of the stock obtained.
In the working of the home nursery no hard and fast lines can be laid
down, the nature of the season having much to do with the time at which
the various operations may be taken in hand. A wet spring retards
seed-sowing, a damp summer the killing-out of weeds and cleaning of the
ground, and early autumn frosts transplanting.
For the various seasons the nursery-work might, however, be sketched as
follows:—
=Spring.=—By February, all trenching, digging, manuring, top-dressing,
and such-like work should be completed. Larch and thorn should be
planted at once, as they start early into growth, following up with
the various kinds of hardwoods and pines. Layers should be planted
out and trees for grafting and budding made ready. Collect larch and
pine cones, and when quite dry store away in a cool, airy place, until
wanted for sowing. During March and April general grafting may be
taken in hand. Ornamental coniferæ may be pruned and transplanted, and
towards the middle of April plants from the seed-beds may safely be
lined out in a sheltered part of the nursery. Tree seeds of all kinds
should be collected as opportunity offers. In February sow yew, holly
and thorn; in March, birch, beech and alder; in April, larch, silver
fir, Scotch, Austrian and Corsican pines; and seeds of the less hardy
coniferæ may be sown in pans or boxes and placed in a cool frame.
General nursery-work should be finished up by the end of April.
[Illustration: TOOLS REQUIRED IN NURSERY.]
=Summer.=—The keeping down of weeds, watering and shading seed-beds,
and turning over and mixing of compost-heaps will be the principal work
for the months of May, June and July. Hollies should be planted out in
May, and seedlings of the same kind lined out in the nursery borders.
Elm seeds may be collected as they ripen, and some of these sown in
well-pulverized beds in June.
=Autumn.=—Weeds will still require attention, particularly in
seed-beds, and amongst young trees that have been recently planted out.
General transplanting of shrubs, particularly evergreens, may now go
on, and seedlings be lined out. Cuttings should be inserted in light
sandy soil by the middle of August, or when the temperature of the
earth and air is most nearly equal.
Trim nursery fences, cut grass, clean walks and roads, and attend
generally to neatness and order. Look over the brakes of pines, and
remove and burn such as are attacked by any of the various insect and
fungus pests to which they are liable. The seeds of ash, hornbeam, yew
and thorn should be collected and placed in barrels with about an equal
bulk of sand, to hasten the decomposition of the outer coating.
=Winter.=—The early winter months will be a busy time in the nursery,
the lifting and dispatching of trees for forest-planting being one of
the principal operations—at least, so long as the weather remains mild
and open. As time permits, two and three year old plants should be
lined out, well-rooted cuttings lifted and transplanted, and layers
from old stools carefully cut away and placed in the borders for a
year or two before being finally planted out. Turn manure-heaps, and
add a small quantity of fresh lime to hasten general decomposition, to
sweeten the soil, and deprive the seeds of weeds of their germinative
properties.
Sloe, holly, and similar berries may be collected as they ripen, and
stored in the usual way.
In November and December, horse chestnut, oak and hazel may be sown in
well-pulverized beds of good, rich soil. Ash and hornbeam are sometimes
sown in January.
CHAPTER V
FORMATION OF PLANTATIONS
=Laying out the Boundary.=—Before commencing actual planting operations
several preliminaries must be attended to. These will include (1)
laying out the boundary, (2) clearing the ground of rough-growing
vegetation, (3) drainage where necessary, (4) fencing, and (5) laying
out such roads as may be necessary for the efficient working of the
plantation. For the benefit of the trees, for shelter purposes, and for
the general appearance of the landscape, it would be well were more
attention paid to the laying out of the sites for new plantations. In
many cases, however, there is no choice in the matter, the proprietor
saying, Here is a field that is of no great value for agricultural
purposes, plant it up. But in the case of hillside or moorland planting
the matter is usually different, the choice of ground, size of
plantation, and method of planting being left entirely in the hands of
the forester. Many considerations will tend to determine the position
of boundaries—bounds of property, proximity to roads, public paths, and
the existence or future probabilities of modes of transit, all being
more or less significant factors.
First, however, it is advisable to take into consideration when
planting hillside or moorland, the shelter to be afforded to cultivated
land in the neighbourhood, but a combination of this with the
aforementioned considerations will be all-important.
The form of the outline must also be laid out with due regard to the
prevailing wind, and should always present a convex side towards it, as
it is obvious that on striking such a curve the force of the wind would
be divided and expend itself in two opposite directions, thereby losing
much of its destructive power. Blending one curve with another should
be strictly observed, and continuous straight lines should be avoided,
not only for appearance sake, but as it is well known that the most
destructive force of the wind concentrates on such outlines.
[Illustration: HILLSIDE WITH PLANTING ARTISTICALLY ARRANGED]
[Illustration: SAME HILLSIDE WITH STIFFLY ARRANGED PLANTATION]
=Woodland Roads.=—These are necessary for access to the wood when
thinning, the removal of timber and firewood, and for sporting
purposes. They should either be pegged out or formed before planting
operations have been commenced, and need neither be of an elaborate
character nor attended with great expense in construction. According
to the area of the plantation, so should the roads be arranged, and a
considerable saving is effected by laying out the roads and leaving
them unplanted. Usually they are made 30 ft. wide, and only require
to have the surface equalised and any stagnant moisture removed by
drainage.
It is a good plan, so as at all times to keep the drives in a passable,
dry condition, to cut a ditch along each side of the ride, parallel to
it, and, say, 18 in. wide by 15 in. deep. The soil so removed will come
in for filling up inequalities on the road surface. Steep roads should
be avoided by following, in quickly sloping woodlands, the curve of
the ground., For sowing down woodland drives, bridle-paths, etc., the
following mixture of grass seeds is to be recommended:—
lbs.
Timothy grass, hard fescue, tall fescue, and
meadow foxtail, 2 lbs. each 8
Smooth stalked meadow and rough cocksfoot,
4 lbs. each 8
Rough stalked meadow and sweet-scented vernal,
4 lbs. each 8
Wood meadow grass 8
————
Total 32
In sowing down gravelly or sandy rides, I have found the Lyme or sand
grass—_Elymus arenarius_—and the Sea Matweed—_Psamma arenaria_—to
answer well, the seeds of each being sown in equal proportions.
Before sowing down woodland rides the soil should be well consolidated,
and all surface inequalities levelled.
=Fencing.=—Local circumstances will often determine the mode of fencing
new plantations. Where stones are abundant these may be utilized in the
formation of walls, while in districts where slate abounds excellent
fences of this kind may be erected at a cheap cost.
Turf walls and ditches are sometimes formed as plantation boundaries,
but unless carefully looked after they are rarely very successful.
Stone and turf walls are now, however, almost entirely superseded by
iron fencing, it being not only readily conveyed to any desired point,
but quickly erected and moderately cheap.
To recommend any particular system of wire fencing would, for various
reasons, be out of place, for amongst the numerous kinds now offered
almost any desired pattern can be obtained.
In any case the fence need not exceed 3 ft. 6 in. in height, with
seven-strand wires, two No. 6 and five No. 7; and, as this is placed
in position at so much per mile by the makers, it is always well, so
as to avoid bad erection and keep down expense, to have it so put up.
Where an abundance of larch timber is growing on the estate, it would,
perhaps, be unwise to employ iron, but in the majority of cases it will
be found cheapest in the end to have the fences erected wholly of iron
and wire.
The straining-posts should be of sound, well-seasoned larch or oak, and
7 ft. long by 6 in. square, or if round 7 in. in diameter.
The intermediate posts are usually of larch, 5½ ft. long by 3½ in., by
3 in., or if round, not less than 3½ in. diameter at small end.
The straining-posts are placed in the ground at 150 yards apart, with
an additional strong post at every angle or curve that occurs in the
line of fence. The intermediate posts are pointed and driven into the
ground along the line of fence at 6 ft. apart.
In order to make a fence proof against the inroads of sheep and cattle
not less than six wires should be erected, and galvanized strand wire
is preferable. The total height of the fence need not exceed 3 ft. 6
in., and the top wires should be placed farther apart than those lower
down.
In tightening the wires a straining machine is usually employed, but
brackets for the same purpose are preferable, these being attached to
the straining-posts.
They are of particular value, as the wire can be tightened or slackened
at will.
The posts should be rounded on the top or sawn with a slant, so that
the rain may run off.
=Draining the Ground.=—Efficient drainage must be considered as one of
the most important operations in the formation of a plantation. Every
portion of the ground may not, probably, require to be drained, but
where it is at all surcharged with moisture the removal of such will be
a step in the right direction if the future welfare of the trees is a
point of first importance. In commencing draining the position of the
main outlet must first be determined, and in doing so every fall of
the ground should be taken advantage of. It is quite impossible to lay
down rules as to the number, sizes, and distances apart of the various
drains, these being points that can only be satisfactorily settled
on the spot, and when the nature of the soil, lie of the ground, and
amount of rainfall to be carried off are determined. In most cases,
however, the main drains should be from 2 ft. 6 in. to fully 3 ft. wide
at the top or surface, from 10 in. to 12 in. wide at the bottom, and
about 3 ft. deep. The minor drains may be less in proportion to the
mains, and are usually 2 ft. deep, 2½ ft. wide at top, and the width of
the draining spade at bottom.
According to the nature of the ground so will the distances at which
the drains should be cut vary, but in most cases from 15 ft. to 30 ft.,
sometimes even less, and sometimes considerably more. The minor drains
should never run at right angles to the main, but at about 45°, which
will prevent the mouths becoming choked up when there is a rush of
water in the main. The soil removed from the drains should be evenly
spread out over the ground-surface.
[Illustration: TOOLS USED IN DRAINING]
=Levelling.=—In the carrying out of drainage operations in connexion
with the formation of new plantations, but particularly where the
land is nearly level, one of the most necessary implements is the
spirit-level or theodolite. There are many other operations, as well
as in connexion with draining, where the level and the knowledge of
its working are all-important for the forester. Thus in the formation
of roads and paths, levelling of ground inequalities, lake and pond
forming, etc., the level will be found an almost indispensable
instrument—in fact, it cannot well be done without.
Of levelling instruments there are various descriptions, but the
simplest of any is the ordinary spirit-level, it being cheap, easily
carried about in the pocket, and when erected on a temporary staff
will fall in with most requirements in connexion with general forest
work. The illustration (Fig. 1) will give a good idea of the simple
instrument. When in use the spirit-level is fixed in a frame of brass,
the whole being screwed into a staff or support, _e_. The brass screw,
_d_, serves to adjust the level as required.
There are two eyesights, _a_ and _b_, the latter being a square
opening, with a fine hair wire crossing it in the middle.
[Illustration: FIG. 1. SPIRIT-LEVEL.]
[Illustration: FIG. 2. METHOD OF LEVELLING.]
The relative heights of a series of points are obtained by means of
their vertical distances from others which, on the supposition of
the earth being a sphere, are equally distant from its centre, and
these, which are called level-points, must be found by an instrument
constructed for the purpose—spirit-level, theodolite, etc. Generally
choice is made of any convenient stations, _a, b, c, d_, on the line of
operation (see Fig. 2), and the distances between them are determined
by actual ad-measurement. The instrument is then set up and adjusted
at, or near, the middle of the interval between every two such points
in succession. When the level thus placed, as at _f_, has been rendered
horizontal by means of the adjusting screw, an assistant at each of
the stations _a_ and _b_, holding what is called a station-staff in
a vertical position, moves an index along the staff, up or down, as
dictated by the observer of the level, till it coincides with the
intersecting wire as seen in the eyesight or telescope. The points
thus determined on the stave are represented by _e_ and _g_, and these
are termed level-points, or points equally distant from the centre of
the earth. Therefore the heights _a, e_, and _b, g_, being read on the
graduated staves, the difference between them will give the relative
heights of the ground at _a_ and _b_. Similar processes are repeated
with respect to the points _b_ and _c_, and _c_ and _d_, the instrument
being placed at _i_ and _m_, midway between them. Usually the heights
_b g, c l_ and _d n_ are inserted in a column headed “Foresights,” and
the heights _a e, b h_, _c k_ and _d n_ in a collateral column headed
“Backsights.” The difference between the sums of the numbers in these
two columns will be equal to the height of one extremity (_a_) of the
line, above the other (_d_). When a number of levels have to be taken
in succession, it will be found a saving of time to use the surveyor’s
level or theodolite instead of the ordinary spirit-level illustrated.
With regard to the use of the instrument as shown in Fig. 1, it may
be necessary to state that the height of the eyesight _b_ from the
ground must be deducted from the point observed. As an example: if the
object-pole or staff be marked in feet or inches, and the hair wire in
taking a sight strike the same at, say, 8 ft., then, if the eyesight be
4 ft. from the ground, the difference of level between the two stations
(instrument and station) will be 4 ft., that is, there will be 4 ft.
of a fall from the spirit-level station to that of the station where
the staff was placed. On the other hand, should the hair wire strike
the object-pole at, say, 2 ft. from the ground, these 2 ft. must be
deducted from the height of the eyesight, which, as we have said, was 4
ft., then the ground at the station-pole must be 2 ft. higher than that
at the spirit-level.
=Clearing the Ground.=—Coarse-growing herbage, which often includes
heath, gorse, and rough grasses, that would interfere with planting
operations, should be removed, but not indiscriminately, as it may
prove of inestimable value under certain conditions. On exposed and
high-lying ground, the heath and grasses will prove of great advantage
to the young trees, and usually they are not too luxuriant or apt to
cause damage at high altitudes. Where, however, the growth of such
shrubs or grasses would be detrimental to the young trees, by all means
have them removed. The best way is either to cut them over or grub
out by the root, and burn on the ground. During a continuance of dry
weather it may be possible to burn without either cutting or uprooting,
but, generally speaking, removal of the roots is to be encouraged.
=Pitting.=—The advantages of pitting over any method of planting
cannot be questioned, and this is particularly the case with ground
that has hitherto been uncultivated. Compared with notch planting,
this system is, no doubt, more expensive, but that the future benefits
to the plants are greatly enhanced is admitted by all practical
arboriculturists.
It is not, however, to be inferred that, though pitting is preferable,
notching is to be abandoned, for there are many precipitous, rocky
places where it would be the only practice feasible, and plants so
inserted have often succeeded admirably.
The pits should in all cases be opened for some time before
planting—indeed, in unfavourable soils and situations, it is a good
practice to have such work performed in autumn and the plants inserted
the following spring. By so doing, the earth that has been removed from
the pits will lie fully exposed to the mellowing influences of frost
and sunshine, so that when the time for replacing it comes round, it
will be in the best possible condition for applying to the roots of the
young trees.
The pits in uncultivated lands should be made circular, about 18 in. in
diameter and fully 12 in. deep, and the sides and bottom well loosened
up with a pick. In loose or recently cultivated soil the pits may be
much smaller. Take off the surface turf in halves, placing these on one
side of the pit, and the soil on the other, for ease and convenience in
planting. When the ground slopes quickly the soil removed from the pits
should, so as to facilitate quick replacing, be deposited on the higher
side.
=Planting.=—This may be successfully carried out during all open
weather from about the end of September to the beginning of April, but,
generally speaking, autumn planting is to be recommended. There are
several exceptions however: such as when we have to deal with peat bog,
water-logged soil, exposed hillsides, or land by the sea-coast. Where
the newly-inserted plants have to cope with prolonged storms, such as
we get on hillsides or by the sea, or contend with very uncongenial
soils, it is always a wise policy to defer planting until spring, or
just when the trees are about to make a start to growth, as they, with
their freshness and vigour undiminished by the change from the nursery
border to the more trying surroundings just referred to, are more
likely to take hold at once and succeed.
The battering and swaying that autumn planted trees receive when
exposed to the hurricanes of our hillsides or seaside sites so enfeeble
them that, in spring, when growth should commence, the majority will be
found to be in a very unsatisfactory state, whereas, by inserting in
spring, when growth will soon be at its full activity, the chances of
succeeding are greatly enhanced. In peat bog the antiseptic properties
of the soil act dangerously on the roots of young trees if allowed
to remain therein for some time before active growth has commenced.
However, with the exceptions cited, tree planting throughout the
British Isles generally should be taken in hand as soon as the leaves
of the hardwood species have fallen, which usually takes place about
the second or third week of October, much depending on the particular
season. Lift the plants very carefully from the nursery brakes, and
do not, on any account, tolerate the too-often-enacted practice of
tearing the trees from the ground, and before they have been properly
loosened on both sides of the lines with a fork. To lift nursery stock
properly—and the extra expense incurred in so doing is money well
spent—a trench should be thrown out along each side of the line and
the soil undermined from beneath the roots, so that the plants can be
lifted without tearing or straining the tender rootlets. It is not
important, if the plants are inserted soon after being lifted, that
soil should accompany each, the roots being plentiful and unmutilated
making up for the want of this. Where, however, the plants have not
to be conveyed far from the home nursery to the plantation there is
no need to remove much of the soil, for if left intact the young tree
is far more likely to start away freely into growth than if this was
shaken clean off.
[Illustration: TOOLS USED IN PLANTING]
Immediate planting after being lifted is to be strongly recommended,
the evil of allowing plants to lie about exposed to wind and weather
being well known. Should it, however, not be convenient to plant at
once, the nursery-stock should be stood closely together, and some damp
straw, leaves, or soil heaped around the roots of the outer or exposed
specimens in the lot. In any case, the roots must never be allowed to
become dry and parched, or be subjected to frosty winds, as these act
most perniciously, and soon destroy the tender fibres and render them
almost useless for the purpose intended.
In planting, spread the roots to their full extent in the pits,
avoiding all cramping and bending, placing the largest to the most
exposed side, and cover with earth, the finest soil being placed next
the roots, and the rougher and grassy on the top. Placing the turf in
the bottom of the pit, cutting it well up with the spade, putting a
little earth on the top of this, and then planting the trees, has its
advantages, the rotting turf acting as manure by the time the roots
have got down to it.
=Slit or Notch Planting.=—This is done by simply cutting the sod or
surface by two strokes of the spade, and to the depth of about 5 in.:
thus =L= or =T=. With the first stroke the spade is inserted in the
ground in an almost perpendicular manner; it is then withdrawn and
inserted at right angles to the first notch and at the end of it, and
by pressing down the handle of the spade the turf is opened up, the
plant being inserted from the blade of the spade towards the further
end; the spade is then carefully withdrawn and the turf trampled so
as to cause the notches to close completely. This latter should be
strictly attended to, as should the notch be left partially open, the
plant will suffer from the admission of an undue quantity of air. The
operation requires two persons—a man to open the notch, and a boy to
insert the plant. It is chiefly employed in bare and hilly ground, and
large tracts of ground in Scotland have been very successfully operated
upon in this way. With the notch system there are advantages and
disadvantages. In the first instance, we have reduced cost, expedition,
and firm insertion; whilst in the second small plants only can be used,
the soil remains unbroken, and the root system presents an unnatural
position.
The plants used with the notch system should not exceed 9 in. in
height.
=The Planting-iron= has been found of great value for inserting small
forest trees in rocky ground, where it would be almost impossible to
do so in any other way. It is 17 in. long, weighs 3 lbs., and can be
conveniently used with one hand.
Holding the “iron” slackly, the planter strikes it into the ground with
a force sufficient to drive the sharp, heart-pointed blade in about 3
in. or 4 in. By pressing it down and towards the planter, with a slight
twist to the right, the left corner of the turf is opened up, the plant
being carefully inserted with all the roots beneath the ground. The
iron is then withdrawn, and the loosened turf made firm by tramping.
Only a small plant should be inserted with the planting-iron, and great
care taken to insure the soil and turf being firmly pressed around the
stem of the young tree.
=Planting Trees too deep.=—Fully 50 per cent. of the deaths amongst
newly-planted trees may be directly attributed to the pernicious
practice of too deep planting. Cases come before us frequently where,
owing to burying the roots of the trees and shrubs at too great a depth
in the soil, they have either died out or gradually become unhealthy
owing to strangulation and want of air. It is a mistaken idea that by
placing the roots at an excessive depth in the soil the young tree
will be better enabled to withstand wind, and so remain in an erect
position. Most workmen quite ignore the original mark on the tree stem
as to the depth it stood whilst in the nursery, and go to an opposite
extreme by covering up both root and stem to an unnecessary depth.
Large trees suffer quite as much from being planted too deep as those
of smaller growth. Quite recently we were asked to look at a large
number of lime trees about 16 ft. in height that had been planted for
several years without a sign of upward growth. The reason for this
was not hard to discover, for on unearthing one of the trees it was
found that the roots were covered with fully 2 ft. in depth of soil.
The trees in question had never budged an inch, and were from year to
year gradually on the decline owing to the ruinous practice of too
deep planting. No better guide as to the depth at which a tree should
be planted can be had than the distinct mark on the stem showing the
depth at which it stood whilst under nursery management. In order
to keep newly-planted trees from being damaged by rocking with the
wind, and to preserve them in an upright position, firm trampling is
all that is required. In very exposed situations it may sometimes be
found necessary to place a small piece of turf against the stem on
the opposite side from which it is leaning, and to make this firm by
means of the foot. Staking, at least in the case of small transplants,
is never necessary, though in the case of larger trees and where the
situation is exposed, light poles thrust into the ground to which
the stems are made fast may be found necessary. Of course, it is a
mistake to allow trees to rock about in the wind to such an extent
that the roots become strained and barked, and holes worked around the
stems, but this can readily be prevented by periodical examinations of
the newly-planted trees. Stones should never be placed in the holes
referred to, as they damage the roots, a piece of stiff turf or heavy
soil being far preferable. With a large experience of tree planting I
find that the general tendency is to plant too deep—an evil that it
is hoped these notes will be the means of remedying, in some cases at
least.
CHAPTER VI
TREES FOR ECONOMIC PLANTING
From a commercial point of view the best trees to plant are such as
will produce the largest volume of the most valuable timber in the
shortest space of time.
Amongst the several hundred species of trees that are cultivated in
this country it is a remarkable fact that less than twenty can be
recommended for profitable planting. Of course many others are valuable
as shade and shelter producers, but from a strictly economic point of
view, that is to say where the value of the timber is a point of first
consideration, only about ten hard-wooded and eight coniferous species
can be included in the list.
Amongst hardwoods we have the oak, ash, beech, sycamore, elm, Spanish
chestnut, willow, poplar, alder and birch; while coniferous trees would
include the larch, Scotch and Corsican pines, common and Sitka spruce,
silver and Douglas firs, and possibly the giant Arborvitæ and Weymouth
pine.
The =Oak=.—Than the timber of the oak none other produced in this
country is more lasting or valuable—indeed, in few other trees are the
qualities of strength and durability, hardness and elasticity combined
to such an extent. As might be expected, however, the value of oak
timber is greatly influenced by soil, that produced on deep, heavy loam
or clay lands being of superior quality. The colour of the wood also
varies greatly with age from a dark grey to a deep rich brown and even
green. Brown oak, which is almost confined to the Midland counties of
England, is considered to be wood in the first stage of decay, and
attacked by a fungus, and is generally associated with trees that are
long past their prime and whose larger limbs have become hollowed and
unhealthy. The finest examples I have seen of brown oak were produced
at Ampthill in Bedfordshire, and on the Welbeck Estate in Notts. The
beautiful vivid green colour assumed by oak timber under certain
conditions is due to the action of the fungus _Peziza æruginosa_. As
this colouring matter in the timber is quite permanent and cannot be
destroyed, wood so affected is eagerly bought up by the makers of fancy
furniture. Unhealthy or dead trees in damp shady positions are most
often attacked by the fungus, and we have known timber of the oak when
left lying about in the woodlands to assume this colour. Owing to the
scarcity and value of green oak timber experiments have been undertaken
to produce the colouring by artificial means, but as far as we are
aware the results were not satisfactory. The best examples of green oak
timber that we have seen were produced in Kent, and in the North of
Ireland.
The =Ash=.—When viewed in a purely economic sense the ash must, next to
the oak, be considered as our most valuable forest tree. The massive,
deeply fluted, or cylindrical trunk, the weighty swelling branches,
and the usually pendant masses of the freshest pea-green foliage, all
combine to render this tree one of the most majestic for ornamental
planting, but particularly so when associated with others that are of
a darker shade of green. The ash is indigenous to Europe, Northern
Africa, and North America, while throughout the British Isles it is
widely dispersed.
It thrives tolerably well in most soils and situations, but the finest
timber is produced in fairly sheltered sites, and where the soil is
rich and open or freely interspersed with loose rock or stones. In
order to produce clean, springy timber, such as is in request for the
making of tool-handles, aeroplanes and agricultural implements, the ash
should be planted thickly in order to induce straight stems that are
for the greater part destitute of branches. For black, peaty soils,
or that of a dampish, loamy character the sapling ash is peculiarly
suited, in which, after being cut over, it will reproduce itself
freely. At from thirty to forty years’ growth the ash is most valuable
for handle wood and for agricultural implements.
The timber is hard, heavy, and flexible, and though rapidly grown it is
tough and elastic above that of any other tree grown in this country,
hence its universal employment for machinery and other special purposes
where great strength, combined with yielding powers, are points of
first consideration. Few timbers become useful at such an early age
as does the ash. At from four to six years’ growth it is fit for
walking sticks, for spade handles at ten years, while after that age
the uses to which it is applied are very numerous and diverse. For the
cartwright, the agricultural implement maker, carpenter, cooper and
turner, it is of special value. No timber has been found to equal it
for the making of oars, pulleys, blocks, ladders, hoops, and crates.
Owing to its sawing without splintering it is used for milkpails,
kitchen tables, staircases, and similar purposes, while when of large
size it is greatly in demand for furniture making.
For smoking herrings ash wood has a certain local demand. Potash is
procured from the ashes of the branches, and the bark has a special
value in the tanning of nets.
The =Beech=.—For profitable planting the beech is one of our most
valuable trees, while it has the extra recommendations that it grows
rapidly, succeeds well in the shade, and reproduces itself freely.
The finest beech timber is produced on chalky or deep sandy soils,
the former being preferable as may be instanced by the comparatively
high price obtained for that grown on the Chiltern Hills and chalky
formations of parts of Kent and Herts. The growth of the beech is rapid
and it attains its prime at from sixty to seventy years, after which
age the timber often becomes black at the heart and accompanied by
rottenness and shakes which render it almost useless for constructive
purposes. It is better suited for indoor than outdoor use and is
extensively used in the making of Windsor chairs, for millwright and
engineering purposes, for the handles of carpenters’ tools, for bobbins
and, when clean and of large size, for the calendar machines of cloth
manufactures.
[Illustration: STANDARD BEECH TREE]
Growing on comparatively poor soils where other species will not
produce profitable timber the beech is particularly valuable on account
of its reproducing itself freely from seed and withstanding a greater
amount of shade than perhaps any other species. It associates well with
the oak under cultivation.
The =Sycamore= for profitable planting can be recommended owing to the
high price which can be obtained for timber of large size, though even
when of thirty years’ growth it finds a ready market for bobbin making
and other turnery purposes.
The most suitable soil for the sycamore is a dry sandy loam or even
deep sand. The tree is peculiarly suitable for planting in exposed or
seaside situations and also for standing alone as a field or hedgerow
tree. The timber is white, smooth and free from grain. It is used for
curtain rings, churns, butter prints, backs of violins, founders’
patterns, cutting boards, and in the making of wooden vessels and
furniture. For calendar machines it is especially valuable.
The =Sweet= or =Spanish Chestnut= is largely cultivated for the value
of the timber it produces. It thrives best on deep gravelly soil or on
granite or sandstone with a dry subsoil, and with a southern or western
exposure. The timber is of excellent quality and lasts well either in
water or above or below ground. It is often substituted for that of the
oak, and is extensively employed for mill timber, bridges, fencing of
all kinds, posts, stakes, casks, and for hop poles.
The Spanish Chestnut is a tree of rapid growth and when the timber is
of fair size it finds a ready market, though at a lower figure than
that of the oak.
Unfortunately the timber produced on certain soils and situations is
much reduced in value owing to cup shake.
=Elm=, both English and Scotch, are extensively planted for the value
of timber produced.
The timber of the English elm is of a rich brown colour, hard, tough
and usually twisted in the grain. Owing to the strength of its
lateral fibre the timber is much in request for making blocks for
ship’s riggings, while it furnishes naves for wheels, coffin boards,
furniture, pumps, piles, and is employed largely by the wheelwright.
For using under water it is the best wood cultivated in this country.
The wood of the Scotch or Wych elm is considered to be more valuable
than that of the English species, and is used for similar purposes and
also as a substitute for ash. It is very liable to become rotten at the
core.
=The Alder and its Uses.=—Whether viewed from a strictly commercial
standpoint, for its justly recognized capacity for thriving luxuriantly
where few other trees could exist, or for its ornamental qualities, the
common alder will be found to rank high among British forest trees. It
usually attains to a height of from 50 ft. to 60 ft., with a stout,
well branched trunk that is more or less gnarled and fluted. The
branches have an upward inclination, and are well clothed with roundly
wedge-shaped leaves that are of a deep, dark green colour. With age the
bark usually assumes a dark brown, or almost black, colour. The alder
is found in all parts of Europe, North Africa, and from Asia to Japan.
For planting in wet, even swampy, situations, where only a very limited
number of trees could eke out an existence, the alder is of particular
value, and it is in such situations that it attains to the largest size
and produces the greatest quantity of timber. Even in situations where
the poplar and willow find a difficulty in battling with the excessive
and stagnant moisture the alder thrives luxuriantly and reproduces
itself freely from seed. As an ornamental tree the alder is not much
in request, although the stately habit and ample deep-green foliage
render it of value in that respect. The fine old specimens by the river
and stream sides at Esher Place in Surrey, have a beauty that is quite
their own, and it is in such tranquil situations that the tree is seen
to perfection—the beauty of form and picturesque appearance causing
it to be unrivalled in river and lake scenery. The tree is readily
propagated and comparatively cheap in consequence, grows rapidly after
becoming established, and is not subject to disease or premature decay.
Though soft, the timber of the alder is in much request, and in
consequence numerous wants are supplied by it. It is very durable
under water, and for this reason is largely employed for piles, bridge
foundations, water pipes, and for lining the banks of rapid running
streams and rivers. The celebrated bridge of the Rialto, at Venice,
was, according to Evelyn, built on piles of alder wood, while the city
of Ravenna was stated to have likewise been built on piles of the same
wood. For herring barrel staves the wood is also in request, as it
is for mill bobbins and turnery work. In cabinet work and for cheap
furniture alder wood is largely used, while as it does not readily
split, boards for the bottoms of carts and wheelbarrows are frequently
made of the same wood.
The beautiful pale pink colour which the timber permanently retains
causes knotty planks to be in great demand for veneering purposes.
In Wales, and throughout the Midland counties, large quantities of
alder timber are consumed in the making of clog soles, which, after
being roughly formed in the woodlands where the trees have been felled,
are sent by rail to several of the Lancashire towns to be finished off.
Throughout Ireland—chiefly the north—large numbers of clog soles, made
of alder, are annually employed in the manufacture of cheap boots;
indeed, in many parts the making of clogs is quite an industry.
The bark of the alder is used in tanning leather, though in much
smaller quantities at present than was the case half a century ago,
when oak bark fetched as much as £10 a ton, and when none of the
chemicals that are now so commonly employed were offered in the market.
Excellent gunpowder is made of the wood, said to be second only in
quality to that prepared from the dogwood. The young shoots, according
to the peculiar way in which they are prepared, are employed in dyeing
red, brown, yellow, and black.
Alder is generally in good demand at all stages of its growth, and
is seldom grown to very large dimensions. For the clogger, turner,
or charcoal burner it is of greatest value up to about thirty years’
growth, while by cutting it over at that age a second crop springs
rapidly from the stools.
The =Birch=.—It is hardly necessary to speak of the hardiness of the
birch, for no other native tree, not even the Scotch pine, ascends
to such elevations in Britain. The higher the tree ascends the more
shrub-like it becomes, until on very exposed rocky sites at great
altitudes it hardly exceeds a yard in height.
As regards soil, the birch is by no means particular, for we find it
succeeding well even on that of a poor rocky or gravelly character.
The largest individual specimens always, however, occur at not too
high an altitude, and on soil of a light, loamy nature, an abundance
of moisture being still further favourable to quick development.
For planting on exposed ground for shelter-giving purposes, but
particularly where the soil is thin and poor, the birch is a most
valuable tree. Its growth is fairly rapid, and it does not suffer to
any appreciable extent either from insect or fungoid attacks. As a
coppice tree it is also valuable.
The timber of the birch, though of little value for general estate
purposes, is largely employed in the arts and manufactures. It is
much used for thread bobbins, turnery work, shoe pegs, hoops, and
fish barrels, while it makes excellent firewood, and yields superior
charcoal for smelting purposes. In Wales large quantities of birch wood
are cut into clog soles, while the sabots used by the French peasantry
are also made of that wood. When of large size and good figure,
furniture and veneers are made of the wood, and on the Continent
felloes for carriage wheels. Brooms and switches are made of the
smaller branches or sprays, while the bark is used for tanning, and an
oil expressed from it is employed in the preparation of the well-known
and fragrant Russian leather.
[Illustration: STEM OF THE TRUE “CRICKET BAT” WILLOW (_Salix cærulea_)]
The =White= or =Huntingdon Willow= (_Salix alba_).—Whether for ornament
or utility the White or Huntingdon Willow must be considered as one of
our most valuable trees. The timber sells readily at all prices up to
10_s_. per cubic foot, and when it is considered that the tree will
succeed in dampish ground where most other species decline to grow,
and that it is of rapid growth, attaining maturity in less than forty
years, its value in economic planting will be recognized. At the outset
it may be well to point out that the wood of the particular willow
from which the best class of cricket bats are manufactured sells at a
higher rate than any other timber that is cultivated in this country.
There are many kinds of willows found growing throughout the British
Isles, but one alone produces the particular class of wood from which
first-class bats are turned out. Until quite lately the timber of the
White or Huntingdon Willow (_Salix alba_) was largely used in the
making of cricket bats, but it has been found that a cross between that
species and the crack willow (_S. fragilis_), and named _S. cærulea_,
produces by far the best wood for the manufacture of high-grade
cricket bats. In the trade the “Cricket Bat Willow,” as it is now
known throughout England, is popularly designated as the close-barked
willow in order to readily distinguish it from the open-barked or crack
willow. Confusion generally exists in determining the various forms
of willow, but in _S. cærulea_ the branches incline upwards; indeed,
the tree has a semi-fastigiate form of growth, and the branches also
have an upward tendency. The bark is a dark grey, with long, straight,
narrow fissures closely arranged and from which the term “close-barked”
is derived. The leaves are of a bluish tint or covered with bluish-grey
hairs beneath and long and narrow in shape, while an unerring point
of difference between the hybrid and other willows is that the tree
produces only female flowers. It may be well to mention in connexion
with the crack willow that the bark fissures are far more rugged and
placed farther apart than is the case with the true cricket bat willow,
_S. cærulea_. The great importance of recognizing and growing for
purely economic purposes the true variety will be apparent when it is
mentioned that makers of cricket bats will have nothing to do with any
but the true “close-barked” tree, and the English bat-maker is keen to
recognize the characteristics of the timber he requires, and will not
stick at paying exorbitant prices for trees of the right kind.
As showing the value in England of the timber of the true bat-making
willow, it might be mentioned that in many instances that have come
under my notice as much as 16_s._ per cubit ft., or six times the price
of the best oak, has been paid for trees of the true _S. cærulea_. A
single tree growing in London lately sold at £10, and in Hertfordshire
eleven trees fetched the handsome sum of £81, while £20 was refused
for four trees growing in a wood in Essex. Such prices are, however,
exceptional, though on a visit to two of the largest bat-making
establishments in the metropolis I was told that for several years past
the average price paid for willow worked out at 6_s._ per cubit foot.
A well-known grower tells us that if planted in suitable soil a “set”
or cutting, which usually costs 1_s._ 6_d._, will in fifteen years be
worth about £6.
The home of the true bat-making willow is in the Eastern English
counties, and it is there that the manufacturer goes when wishing to
purchase the most valuable timber for his special work. The propagation
of the bat-making willow is simple, either by rooted cuttings or
“sets,” the latter being the best and cheapest method. “Sets” are
usually from 12 to 20 ft. long, with a basal diameter of, say, 3
ins., the best being got from pollarded trees, and straight, clean,
branchless shoots are preferable. They should be stripped of all side
branches for about three-fourths of their length and only cut in
spring. By placing these sets together in a ditch or pond for about a
month rootlets will be emitted, when they may be planted in previously
prepared holes, which are formed by driving an iron rod or stake in the
ground for a distance of, say, 2½ ft.
The =Poplar=.—Several species of poplar are valuable for the timber
they produce, as also for their rapidity of growth and succeeding in
low-lying, damp ground. When clean grown and of large size the timber
sells readily at prices which vary from 1_s_. to 1_s_. 6_d_. per ft.
Probably the most valuable species is the white poplar (_Populus
alba_), though the black Italian (_P. monilifera_) produces excellent
timber for which there is generally a demand.
From a purely commercial point of view the above hard-wooded trees are
the only kinds that can be recommended for planting in this country.
The timber of the lime, hornbeam, walnut and one or two others at times
sells at a fair price, but the small quantity offered shows that they
have not been considered worthy of attention where the economic value
of the plantations was being considered.
CONIFEROUS TREES
Amongst the many conifers that have been introduced to this country
during the last century very few can be recommended as suitable for
profitable planting. The following, so far as is known, are the only
species to be recommended:—
The =Larch= (_Larix europæa_).—Both for and against the larch much
has been written and said, particularly of late years; but, however
much has been said in commendation of it, there can be no doubt that
to overstate its value as a timber tree in the economy of British
forestry would be a task of some difficulty. When we combine its great,
almost peculiar, aptitude to suit itself to nearly all conditions of
soils, altitudes, and diversities of climate, its long-established
value as a timber tree, rapidity of growth and ease of culture, it is
clear that no other tree cultivated in this country can be ranked on
a par with the larch. Unfortunately, however, of late years the larch
has suffered much from disease, the predisposing causes of which may
mainly be attributed to the variableness of our spring weather, and the
rapidly degenerating state of the tree—the latter chiefly brought about
by an injudicious selection of seed. By far too little attention has
been paid to this important matter, the result being that weakness and
tenderness have got into the constitution of the tree, and it is thus
unable to withstand even a few degrees of frost. So weakened, blight,
fungus, and ulceration find a footing, and thus the fell disease is
generated about which so much has been said and written of late years.
In my own opinion, strengthened by careful investigation and research,
induced tenderness in the constitution of the larch is the primary
cause of disease, cold winds and frost being the destructive agents,
and ulceration the direct consequence.
Injury to the roots of the larch in transplanting is attended with most
injurious results. In corroboration of this, it may be stated that
natural or self-sown trees are, in this country, almost exempt from
disease.
The variableness of our spring weather is, no doubt, one of the
predisposing causes of disease, for although no degree of cold
experienced in this country can injure the tree when leafless, yet few
are more sensitive when in young foliage.
The durability of the wood of the larch is well known, and this
peculiarity is even noticeable when of only a few years’ growth. As
compared with Scotch and spruce firs, the wood of the larch is about
twice as durable—a fence of the latter cut at from twenty to thirty
years’ growth lasted from seventeen to twenty years, while that of
the spruce lasts about eleven years, and the Scotch seven years. This
refers especially to rails, not to posts, which decay in about half
that time. For mining and railway purposes the durability of larch wood
makes it much sought after, this being further enhanced by its extreme
lightness, the weight of a cubic foot when seasoned being only 34 lbs.
It takes a beautiful polish, works with great freedom, and, when fully
seasoned, is not at all liable to twist or warp.
Substitutes for the larch have often been recommended, but, in the true
sense of the word, there are practically none, although, doubtless,
some of those whose claims have been set forth might to a certain
extent reflect one or more of its valuable qualities.
=Sitka or Silver Spruce= (_Picea Sitchensis_).—From a purely commercial
point of view the Sitka or Silver Spruce is probably the most valuable
of any of the family to which it belongs. It is a tree of noble
growth in this country, several specimens being well over 100 ft.
in height and with boles that girth fully 10 ft. at a yard from the
ground, these dimensions being attained in seventy-five years. When
used as a standard, the tree is one of great beauty, the stiff and
rather irregularly disposed branches being thickly beset with vivid
bluish-green foliage that is silvery on the under side. It delights in
a cool, moist loam and not too exposed situation, but when grown on
gravel or any warm soil the foliage is distinctly meagre and affected
by red spider. The timber, which is remarkably light for its bulk,
strong and flexible, is of great value in the making of aeroplanes, and
special logs find a ready market at highly remunerative prices in the
London market.
The =Corsican Pine= (_Pinus laricio_).—This is, undoubtedly, one of the
best all-round conifers that has found its way into the British Isles.
It is of very rapid growth, and well suited for planting, even in the
most exposed and wind-swept situations; a non-fastidious subject as to
soil, and a valuable timber-producer.
As to its adaptability for withstanding long-continued cold blasts at
high altitudes, ample evidence can be adduced on many an English and
Scotch estate where the pine has been introduced into the woodlands in
such quantity as in certain places to form the ultimate or standing
crop. In North Wales, on one of the Snowdon range of hills, I have
planted the Corsican pine in great quantity. The plantation was, for
the greater part, fully exposed to the dreaded south-westerly wind,
which at times blows hard and long, and sweeps the hillsides with
terrific fury; yet, under such conditions, the Corsican pine has done
remarkably well—in fact, proved itself to be well suited for planting
at high altitudes on our English hillsides. Even at the highest point
of the woodlands in question, this pine has thriven in a manner that
is quite surprising, and thrown its stoutest branches out into the
very teeth of the blast, and that where hardly a hardwood tree could
survive, and even the Scotch fir shrank from the cold and almost
unceasing storms. Other notable instances of how well the Corsican does
on exposed ground and high altitudes might be pointed out—such as at
Blair Athol, in Perthshire, at 700 ft., where it is thriving amazingly;
and again in Yorkshire, one of the most barren and wind-swept of
English counties, where in parts, it grows with a luxuriance that is
almost unparalleled in any other part of Britain. The timber produced
by the Corsican pine in this country is strong, tough, elastic, very
resinous, and easily worked; this is speaking of trees of fully fifty
years’ growth. It thrives well on gravelly soil, some of the largest
specimens of the tree in this country growing along the margin of a
disused gravel-pit.
It may be said that the Corsican pine is perfectly hardy, peculiarly
well suited for planting in exposed situations, a rapid and valuable
timber-producer, a tree that is cheaply and easily raised from
seed, and one of the most non-exacting conifers as regards choice
of soil that could be named—all qualities of the highest value in a
timber-producing tree and a combination that is rarely found in any
other species.
In France extensive plantations of the Corsican have been formed, while
it has also been introduced extensively into the State forests by the
Prussian Government.
[Illustration: THE WEYMOUTH PINE AT GWYDYR CASTLE]
The =Weymouth Pine= (_P. Strobus_), whether viewed in an ornamental or
economic aspect, must be considered as another of the most valuable
pines that have been introduced into this country. Admit, we must,
that in certain situations the cultivation of this handsome tree has
been attended with no very promising results; but then it should be
remembered that, like most other trees, the Weymouth pine has its likes
and dislikes of soil, as well, indeed, as of aspect and altitude.
That it has succeeded well, and produced an unusually large quantity
of clean and firm wood in various parts of the country cannot be
denied; but then in such places its peculiar wants have been attended
to. At Gwydyr Castle, in North Wales, the tree succeeds admirably,
specimens fully 90 ft. in height, straight as arrows, branchless for
three-fourths their length, and fully 8 ft. in girth at breast-high,
being not uncommon. The soil is rocky debris, largely intermixed with
vegetable refuse, fairly moist at all times, but without stagnant
moisture.
On the western borders of Ross-shire, at Strathkyle, where the
altitudes vary from 100 ft. to 1,200 ft., the Weymouth pine is making
rapid progress. We do not wish it to be inferred that the Weymouth
pine alone is suitable for planting at high altitudes and on exposed
situations; but that it will grow rapidly and produce useful timber
in partially-sheltered districts has been proved by those who have
paid particular attention to the value of the more recently introduced
conifers as profitable timber-producers in this country.
A comparison of the wood produced by the Weymouth pine in this country
with that sent to the late Colonial and Indian Exhibition showed but
slight differences, and nothing more than could naturally be expected
between a mature and an only partially-developed tree.
The =Scotch Pine= (_P. sylvestris_) must on no account be omitted from
our list; as, especially for planting in exposed situations where
few other trees could succeed, it is one of the best. Probably the
principal reason why this tree has not been more generally cultivated,
is on account of the low-priced timber it produces, for, of late years,
it has been difficult, except in certain favoured districts, to get
rid of it at a remunerative price. With the war, matters are quite
different. The finest quality of Scotch pine timber, such as that
produced in some of the northern Scottish counties, no doubt, is even
now fairly remunerative; but, generally speaking, that grown throughout
Southern Scotland, England as a whole, and also Ireland, is of so
inferior a quality as hardly to fetch a remunerative price. No doubt,
however, this pine will continue to be largely planted wherever shelter
and ornament are of first importance: and rightly so, for few others
are so well able to withstand cold, cutting blasts at high altitudes.
The =Douglas Fir= (_Pseudotsuga Douglasii_) is, in certain situations,
a valuable timber-producing tree—indeed, as regards the actual
production of timber in a given time, it is, perhaps, ahead of any
other tree grown in this country. From measurements we have taken, the
actual production of timber during fifty years was 240 ft., or nearly
5 ft. per year for half a century. In a plantation of the Douglas fir
in Wales, planted twenty-two years, we found the average dimensions
to be as follows: Height, 76 ft.; girth of stem at 24 ft., 4 ft.;
cubic contents, fully 50 ft. The timber produced in this country is of
excellent quality, being light but strong, works very readily, has a
pleasant yellowish tinge, and takes on a good polish. That the Douglas
fir is a tree that is eminently adapted for cultivation in this country
is already well known; but to grow it in anything like a satisfactory
way it must be planted in sheltered hollows, for extensive experience
has long ago proved to us that it is ill-adapted for braving the storm,
even at a few feet above the sea-level. Long ago we strongly advocated
the forming of plantations of _P. Douglasii_ alone, or with some
other tree of about equally rapid growth, for, when mixed up with the
general run of our forest trees, the leader, on overtopping those of
its neighbours, soon gets broken over, or otherwise presents an almost
branchless, whip-handle-like appearance. We do not wish to say one word
against this our favourite fir: but the truth must be told, and our own
experience, gained principally on a low-lying seaside estate, where
the tree was annually planted by the thousand, is that _P. Douglasii_
must occupy a sheltered situation if either ornament or utility be
considered as points of first importance.
The =Giant Arborvitæ= (_Thuja gigantea_) is fast coming to the front
as a British timber tree, and has already, at the hands of far-seeing
planters, received a fair amount of attention. After a fair and
impartial trial on our part, we have found it to be perfectly hardy,
even at high altitudes, a fast grower and rapid timber-producer, a
non-fastidious subject as regards the quality of soil in which it is
planted, and one of the most easily managed and most accommodating of
trees. The quality of timber produced in this country is such as to
warrant us in speaking highly of it, it being of a desirable yellow
colour, fine-grained, easily worked, remarkably durable, and light in
proportion to its bulk. From the measurements of fully twenty-four
specimens scattered over an English park, we have found that the
average annual rate of growth is 22 in., but even this is exceeded by
young trees.
The =Norway Spruce= (_Picea excelsa_).—Whether as a hardy,
shelter-giving tree, or for the quantity of fairly good timber it
produces, the common or Norway spruce must ever rank high in the list
of useful trees that have been found suitable for culture in the
British Isles. That it is a tree in every sense of the word admirably
suited for extensive planting is acknowledged by all, as it luxuriates
at high altitudes, and where fully exposed to our worst winds, and at
the same time produces a great quantity of timber that has been found
of excellent quality, well suited for general constructive purposes.
As a shelter tree few others can equal the spruce, and when planted
along the outskirts of exposed plantations the amount of warmth and
protection it affords is quite surprising.
The =Silver Fir= (_Abies pectinata_) is another of those trees that
have of late years fallen into disrepute, mainly owing to the increased
importation of foreign timber. That it is an excellent and highly
remunerative tree is unquestionable, and the very fact of its thriving
luxuriantly on soils where the larch declines to grow should make it,
in this country at least, of great value as a forest tree.
With the most satisfactory results has the timber been used for railway
sleepers—in fact four sleepers laid experimentally have stood the wear
and tear quite as well as those of Baltic timber, alongside of which
they were placed. For roofing purposes the wood has likewise attained
great fame, as it is found to stand vicissitudes of dry and damp
alternately better than almost any other home-grown timber.
The coniferous trees just treated of are about the only kinds that can
be recommended for profitable planting in this country.
The Atlantic Cedar and Japanese Larch might be added to the list,
but present experience will not justify us in bringing any of these
prominently to notice.
Twenty-five years ago, at the instigation of the then Earl of Derby,
the writer formed several plantations on the Holwood Estate in Kent.
At the outset it may be well to state that these plantations were not
formed with the object of producing valuable timber, but rather for the
ornamentation and privacy of the newly-acquired property. The trees
used were the Scotch, Corsican, Austrian and Weymouth pines, Douglas
fir, the larch, and several species of hardwoods. As all have succeeded
well under exactly similar conditions, the following notes as to the
rate of growth and production of timber, both of which are unusually
great, during a period of twenty-five years may be instructive.
Previously to being planted the land, which may best be described as a
hungry loam on a gravelly subsoil and sheltered, was let out for rough
grazing and the cultivation of strawberries and other fruit.
The cost per acre of forming these plantations was:—
£ _s._ _d._
Pitting, 2,722 at 1_s._ per 100 1 7 2
Planting 1 1 0
Trees, at 40_s._ per 1,000 5 8 0
———————————————
£7 16 2
This price may appear both high and low, but in connexion with the
former it should be explained that the coniferous trees when planted
were about 16 in. high, the others about 3 ft., all being placed 4
ft. apart. Owing to the land having recently been under cultivation
and labour at that time being cheap in the district, the opening of
pits was carried out by contract at quite a nominal rate, the size of
each being 12 in. square and 9 in. deep. After being planted the trees
required little attention for the first six years, at which period they
averaged 8 ft. in height, and the shade occasioned by the branch spread
had killed out most of the grassy undergrowth.
As the plantations were primarily intended for ornament and shelter,
the retention of the lower branches of the trees, at least along the
margin, was imperative, and in order to ensure this, early thinning was
engaged in and carried out at regular intervals up to the present time,
always bearing in mind to allow the boundary trees plenty of room for
branch development, those inwards, in order to induce clean growth,
being left much closer on the ground. Though in the latter case the
volume of timber produced is comparatively less than along the margins,
yet it is of greater value owing to the trees being straight and
clean-stemmed, the only exception being the Corsican pine which, even
when isolated, has little inclination to form stout side branches.
The soil being light and resting on gravel was peculiarly suited for
the growth of the pines, none of which suffered from disease or insect
attack, though the Weymouth had occasional patches of the aphis with
which it is usually attacked around London. The larch was practically
free from canker.
During recent thinning operations a good opportunity was afforded of
taking the actual measurements when felled of the various species of
trees, these being as follows:—
Austrian pine, average height, 46 ft.; cubic contents, 9 ft.
Corsican ” ” ” 51 ft.; ” ” 11 ft.
Scotch ” ” ” 45 ft.; ” ” 8 ft.
Weymouth ” ” ” 42 ft.; ” ” 6 ft.
Larch ” ” 47 ft.; ” ” 8 ft.
It will thus be seen that the Corsican pine has surpassed all the
others both in height and in the quantity of timber produced; and in
viewing the plantations from a distance the leaders of the Corsican
pines soar quite 6 ft. above those of their neighbours. The Austrian
comes next in the quantity of timber produced, but not in height; and
the larch and Scotch are of about equal size, the Weymouth being equal
to the latter in height but not in bulk of stem. But the larch beats
all in value of timber, for, while that of the various species of pine
was difficult to sell at a remunerative figure, the larch wood was
readily disposed of at a fair valuation.
My experience is that timber merchants fight shy of purchasing any of
the pine family excepting the Scotch. This may be owing to prejudice or
want of knowledge as to the value of timber produced by the Corsican
and Weymouth; but whatever the cause, the fact remains that the timber
of both these species is difficult to dispose of at any but firewood
rates. That of the Scotch being better known finds a ready market
at about half the price of larch, which latter, after all, is the
most useful and profitable of any coniferous tree cultivated in this
country, and one for which the demand always exceeds the supply.
CHAPTER VII
PLANTING EXPOSED GROUND
As the majority of plantations for purely economic purposes are formed
on the wind-swept moor or hillside, the successful management of these
is a matter of considerable importance.
There are many difficulties to encounter in planting high-lying and
exposed ground that one would never have to think about in low-lying
and sheltered situations. Planting, for instance, should not be
commenced until February or March, as, by deferring it till that time,
the newly-inserted plants will be fresh and vigorous, and ready for an
immediate start in growth, which would not be the case if they had been
put out in autumn and subjected during winter to the inevitable wind
shaking that is always to be reckoned with on exposed ground.
The choice of trees, too, for planting on wind-swept ground is a matter
of far more moment than is generally supposed, for that there are
certain species of trees peculiarly suitable for withstanding prolonged
storms is well known to those who have had to do with the forming of
woods and plantations at high altitudes. The size of trees planted has
also much to do with the after success of the woods, and it may be
well at the outset to say that these should not exceed about 12 in. in
height on the most favoured sites to about from 6 in. to 9 in. on the
more exposed grounds. They should also be properly prepared by frequent
careful transplanting for the situations they are intended to occupy,
as it can hardly be expected that a young and immature tree can, after
being brought from a probably sheltered lowland nursery—as nine-tenths
of those in this country are—to a high piece of ground, where at
times the wind blows with terrific fury, and where one can scarcely
stand upright, have sufficient stamina to stand against such odds and
difference as must and do exist between the two points at present under
consideration.
Sometimes it is well to trench over a piece of ground on
partially-exposed land, and insert therein for a couple of years before
the proposed plantation is to be formed, the young trees intended for
planting out. This has a wonderful effect in hardening and inuring
them to severe cold and a wind-swept situation. By forming a nursery
of young trees by the sea-coast, I have known great success attend the
formation of woods and plantations in maritime situations, and like
results are sure to attend the planting out of trees in any uncongenial
and unfavourable situation.
About the trees to be planted, being such as are sufficiently hardy
to withstand prolonged storms, we will now say a few words. In the
outer line—or, rather lines—the Scotch, Austrian, and Corsican Pines
(_Pinus sylvestris_, _P. austriaca_, and _P. laricio_) are of first
value, since they are able to stand against the storms of the hillside
and produce a great amount of shelter to other less hardy kinds. It is
often only necessary to make a wind-barrier, as it were—that is, to
plant well-tried evergreen kinds, from which shelter can be obtained
next the most windy position, then to follow up with other kinds that
are second hardy in nature, and so on inwards; while, in the very
centre of the plantation, almost any kind of tree can be used.
The =Austrian Pine= has been successfully planted at high altitudes,
and in the most exposed situations, and on the Continent it has proved
itself of great value for breezy sites and maritime situations.
The State forests are composed of not a few Austrian pines, and they
are greatly valued for the shelter and warmth they afford to other less
hardy kinds of trees. The best results are to be obtained if planted
when young, for when removed at a greater age, with roots large and
rampant of growth, it is with great difficulty that they can be got to
keep upright. Unfortunately the timber is of no special value.
The =Corsican Pine= is equally as good as the latter for using where
winds are of common occurrence, proving stout and strong, rooting well,
and presenting a broad surface of hardy evergreen foliage to the blast.
It is a good timber-producer, and, being well fitted for growing in
patches close together, will yet be largely used for forest work in
this country.
About the =Scotch Pine= it is, perhaps, needless to speak, for every
one who has travelled in Scotland, particularly in the more exposed
northern parts, must have made himself acquainted with the capabilities
of this valuable native tree. It can grow and flourish almost
anywhere—on pure gravel, on the rocky mountain-slope, or by the rushing
brookside, and in all these positions it seems to feel quite happy and
contented, as the beautiful silvery glaucous foliage, the upright,
rampant growth, and the cheery cinnamon or terra-cotta bark clearly
indicate.
With these three excellent storm-resisting trees for an outer barrier
almost any kind of planting can be engaged in, for the shelter they
afford is amply sufficient to start away into rapid growth even our
only second-class hardy kinds of trees. The =Sycamore= is a good
tree for planting where the storms blow loud and long, being able to
withstand in a very commendable way the first brunt of the hillside
winds. It is also a good timber-producer, the wood at all times being
easily disposed of, and at a very remunerative price.
The =Elder= and =Mountain Ash= are other valuable small-growing trees
for planting on exposed ground, both flourishing apace even in very
high and exposed woodlands.
In the =Scotch= or =Mountain Elm= (_Ulmus montana_) we have a
first-class tree for planting as shelter, while the =Alder=, =Willows=
of various kinds, and the =Hornbeam= should all receive attention in
the formation of woodlands on exposed and storm-swept sites.
The =American Winged Elm= (_Ulmus alata_) has few equals for
withstanding long-continued storms at high altitudes, for it sends out
its cork-covered branches without fear of harm into the very teeth of
the blast. I have noticed how well suited this elm is for planting
on exposed, high-lying ground by the few examples that occur at
considerable elevations in some of the screen-belts that have been
formed on the flanks of the Snowdon range of hills, where the tree
looks quite as healthy and happy as at lower elevations in a sheltered
park.
The =Larch=, be it remembered, is a good tree for planting on exposed
ground, for, though it gets twisted about and untidy of appearance, it
has a wonderful recuperative nature, and will succeed well even when
planted on the margins of exposed woodlands. By taking advantage of
natural tree or shrub growth when forming plantations at high altitudes
much good may be brought about. A young tree planted to the leeward of
a clump of gorse, broom, juniper, or birch has a much better chance of
succeeding than another planted where it has no shelter from the worst
winds of the particular district. These wild clumps of natural shrubs
should be encouraged in every way, for they will not only give a great
amount of shelter, but help to thicken up the plantations as well. In
exposed woodlands it is a good plan to plant up the margins with such
hardy wild shrubs as the gorse, broom, thorn, juniper, blackthorn,
etc., all of which will afford a great amount of shelter to the young
plants when newly inserted, and help them to start away freely.
The =Common Beech= is a good all-round tree for planting in exposed
sites, but especially where the soil is poor, or, in other words,
composed principally of chalk or gravel. Some of the highest grounds
in several of the English counties are occupied by thriving beech
plantations, these acting as landmarks for many miles around, as
notably at Knockholt and on the Chiltern Hills.
The =Oak= and =Ash= should both find places in high-lying and exposed
woodlands, for, although they cannot be planted successfully along the
margins, yet they thrive well where a little shelter is afforded, and
where the soil is fairly deep and rich.
The =Birch= cannot be passed by in any list of trees for planting in
exposed places; it thrives well at high altitudes, and where only a
small quantity of soil overlies the rock.
The =Wild= and =Bird Cherries= (_Cerasus vulgaris_ and _C. Padus_) are
excellent ornamental trees for exposed grounds, where they grow to a
large size and flower freely. They can both subsist where but a small
depth of soil is present.
=Preparation of the Ground and Planting.=—As regards the pits for
planting, these should be well prepared—that is, the soil loosened
up and made free for the roots to run in, which will greatly help
the trees to become quickly established—a point of great importance
on exposed ground. The top turf may be chopped up and placed in the
bottom of the pit, this serving, when decomposed, as manure to the
roots, and assisting to promote vigorous growth. In planting, place the
best-rooted sides of the trees to the windward or most exposed site,
and do not cover with the soil to a greater depth than that in which
the plant stood whilst in the nursery border. On very exposed sites,
and where the soil is thin, notch planting and inserting with the
planting iron are to be recommended.
It will be well, at stated intervals, to examine young plantations
formed on high-lying and exposed ground, to see that the plants do not
get shaken about with the wind and holes formed around the stems. This
latter is highly injurious to the welfare of the plants, as the air
passing down the stem side causes the roots to get dry to an inordinate
degree.
Wind-swaying, where these holes have been formed around the stem, is
also hurtful, as the tender roots get strained and barked, and ill
fitted for maintaining a healthy condition of the young trees. The
holes formed by swaying of the stems should be filled up with fine
soil—not stones, as is sometimes the case—and a small piece of stiff,
grassy turf tramped firmly against the stem on the side opposite that
from which the worst winds may be expected.
Should rank vegetation, which, is, however, rarely met with at high
altitudes and on exposed ground, interfere with the growth of the young
trees, it would be well to have such cut over and either burned or
spread evenly over the ground.
CHAPTER VIII
SEASIDE PLANTING
Few persons other than those who have actually been engaged in the
work have the remotest idea of the difficulties to be encountered
in the formation of belts and plantations on exposed and wind-swept
seaside ground. To plant young trees around many parts of the coast of
the British Isles, particularly where wide stretches of open seaboard
are to be dealt with, without first erecting a shelter-screen of
some kind or other, is useless work, and only productive of the most
unsatisfactory results.
That there are not a few districts, however, where such a preliminary
would be needless is well known, all that is required in certain
instances being, first of all, to prepare the ground, and secondly, to
suit the trees to the soil and situation, seeing that some varieties
succeed better than others in certain soils and sites.
From experience I have found out how useless it is to plant in a
haphazard way, at least, on the more exposed seaboards along the west
coast, whereas, by careful manipulation, I have been successful in
getting up shelter where before it was deemed almost an impossibility.
The chief consideration in seaside planting is unquestionably shelter,
be it only of a temporary kind, for it may be noticed anywhere along
our coast that, wherever the direct force of the hurricane is broken,
there trees and shrubs are growing best. Another evil—a great one,
too—with which the planter has to contend is the injurious effect
on trees, but more particularly on evergreen shrubs, of the saline
particles which are driven and deposited with such force on the leaves
and branches as in many instances to give them the appearance of having
been scorched or cut over when in full vigour by an untimely frost.
Wind-shaking, although a minor evil, must also be carefully guarded
against, so that at the outset it is well to have the trees, except
such as are of dwarf size, securely staked and tied, so as to obviate
the dire results occasioned to the roots of newly-planted trees when
the stems are allowed to rock to and fro with the wind.
Before commencing planting operations on the sandy and exposed
sea-coast, the preliminary step is to erect a barrier of some kind,
which will intercept the violence of the wind, and act as a screen
or shelter to the young plants. For this purpose various kinds of
erections are equally suitable, but that usually adopted, especially
where loose sand alone is present, is a strong paling fence thatched
with brushwood. The posts should if possible be 6 ft. above ground and
about 12 ft. apart, the paling-rails, two in number, being securely
nailed to these at 2 ft. and 5 ft. from the ground; against this are
placed spruce or gorse trimmings, these being 6 ft. long if possible,
in an upright manner, and firmly tied to the crossbars by means of
binding wire or strong tarred rope. This may best be described as a
dead fence, but it is, nevertheless, quite as valuable for the purpose
required as a perfectly developed living hedge. By means of this a
great advantage is gained and a favourable start for the newly-planted
trees is secured. Then, compared with a stone wall, or, in fact, a
wall of any kind, this screen-fence is greatly superior, the wind
being broken up in passing through it, and, what is of as much value,
also relieved of its saline particles, at least to a very considerable
extent.
Where the shore is almost destitute of sand, and where certain kinds of
vegetation subsist, I find it to be a capital plan to substitute for
the dead fence just described that composed of turf and earth.
The raised mound should be not less than 5 ft. in height, and of
sufficient width at top to allow of the planting of a double line
of such plants as have been found most suitable for the wind-swept
maritime situation in which they are to be used. For this purpose few
plants equal, and certainly none surpass, the Sea Buckthorn (_Hippophæ
rhamnoides_), Tamarisk (_Tamarix gallica_), the common elder, hazel,
whitethorn, and at least three species of willow—_Salix Caprea_, _S.
helix_, and _S. alba_. Immediately behind this screen, pits of not
less than 2 ft. in diameter and about 18 in. in depth may be formed,
and it will be all the better if some time is allowed to elapse before
they are planted. The bottom and side of each pit should, where found
necessary, be loosed with a pick, and if the soil is found to be of
very inferior quality, it will be well, more especially where such can
be readily obtained, to add a spadeful or two from some adjoining field.
Planting should not be commenced before March or April, an early start
at growth being much in favour of young trees that have recently been
transferred to the sea-coast. The plants to be used should not exceed,
say, 12 to 15 in. in height, but of strong growth in proportion to
their size, and supplied with an abundance of fibrous roots. Lanky,
ill-grown, and coddled plants have but a poor chance of succeeding
under such adverse circumstances.
In planting, keep the strongest roots seaward, and do not place the
trees at a greater depth in the soil than that at which they stood
whilst in the nursery border. The failure to use this precaution is
a mistake, and is productive of anything but favourable results.
Immediately behind this raised mound of turf, or the dead fence
of branches above described, the best trees for withstanding the
first brunt of the sea-breeze are the sycamore, elm, elder, and
willow amongst hardwoods, and the Austrian and cluster pines (_Pinus
austriaca_ and _P. Pinaster_), to which might be added _P. laricio_,
_P. sylvestris_, and _P. montana_, amongst conifers. These are all
well-tried subjects, and may be relied upon as peculiarly suited
for doing battle with hard-blowing and long-continued storms on the
sea-coast.
Regarding the merits of the cluster pine for seaside planting, it would
be almost superfluous for me to speak; while the elm and sycamore send
out their stout branches into the very teeth of the blast, and are
known as peculiarly well suited for such situations.
The following list includes such trees and shrubs as have, from long
experience, been found well suited for planting on cold and wind-swept
shores, and the trees are arranged according to their value in this
respect.
HARDWOODS
The =Sycamore= (_Acer Pseudo-platanus_) is, without doubt, the most
valuable hard-wooded tree of timber size that I have come across for
planting in exposed seaside situations. It succeeds well, even at
highwater mark, the stout, twiggy branches being thrown out into the
very face of the blast. Even during winter, and in a leafless state,
the amount of shelter afforded by this tree is quite surprising. Taking
everything into consideration—its great hardihood, and suitability to
various soils and situations, I consider the sycamore the most valuable
of any deciduous tree that I have yet tried for seaside planting.
The =Elder= (_Sambucus nigra_) is, amongst small-growing trees, the
best for planting in exposed seaside districts. Its powers of endurance
are even greater than those of the sycamore, although the amount of
shelter it affords is by no means so great. Where its branches are
constantly exposed to the saline-laden breeze, and its roots amongst
almost pure sand, it grows and thrives in a manner that is quite
surprising. With the greatest advantages have I used the elder as a
wind-break on some of the most exposed and desolate coasts of the
British Isles. Even where grown as a single specimen, it seems to
disregard the angry blast and saline particles with which it is almost
constantly pelted—a fact that may be verified, in not one, but several
stations along the coast. Then, what tree is of readier culture than
the elder, succeeds better in poor, sandy soils, or spreads about to an
equal extent?
The =Norway Maple= (_Acer platanoides_) stands the first brunt of the
sea-breeze in a most commendable way—indeed, it may be recommended
as one of the most hardy and valuable trees for the purpose under
consideration that could be named. On the western coast of England,
and in a very exposed and wind-swept district, I have used it with the
greatest success in the formation of plantations, as it is of rapid
growth and soon forms an excellent shelter to the other less hardy
kinds of trees. It is by no means particular as to soil, but succeeds
all the better if this is fairly rich.
The =Winged Elm= (_Ulmus alata_).—From a long experience of this, at
present, little-known tree, I have every confidence in recommending it
as one of the most valuable trees for planting in cold, wind-tortured,
and maritime districts that have yet found their way into this country.
Where many of our hardiest trees are bent and shrinking from the blast,
this elm stands nobly out, and seems to defy both winds and storm.
The =Huntingdon Willow= (_Salix alba_) and =Bedford Willow= (_S.
Russelliana_), but particularly the former, are excellent trees for
windy shores. In many places along the coast the Huntingdon willow may
be seen in a most flourishing and happy condition, and that, too, where
the surroundings are the reverse of favourable. It is a tree of quick
growth, and will succeed well in any class of soil if it be not too
damp. In one instance that came under my notice, the trees were planted
on a promontory overhanging the sea and in such a situation that they
were almost constantly subjected to rough-blowing winds coming in from
the Irish Sea, and yet they have grown with the greatest freedom, and
to-day look as healthy and happy as if planted in some sheltered inland
situation.
The =Beam Tree= (_Pyrus Aria_) is another excellent small-growing tree
for planting in sites where, from cold saline blasts, few others could
eke out even a miserable existence.
On the limestone cliffs of the Great Orme’s Head this handsome and
hardy tree grows in a most surprising way—indeed, with the exception of
one or two species of willow, I question very much whether any other
tree could exist under the trying circumstances. The hard and leathery
leaves seem as if specially constructed for bearing storms, and, being
plentifully produced, render a great amount of shelter to other trees.
The =Goat Willow= (_Salix Caprea_), for planting in almost pure sand
on the sea-coast, is a most valuable small-growing tree, and it is so
hardy that, without the least risk of harm, it may be planted at great
altitudes, and in very exposed situations. In several of the maritime
plantations that I have formed, this willow was used with remarkable
success in the outer line or screen.
The =Aspen= (_Populus tremula_) is an excellent shore-tree, one
that can withstand a great amount of rough usage, and as hardy and
fast-growing a subject as could well be desired. In the formation
of several exposed seaside woods on the west coast of England I
planted the aspen largely, and, I may add, the results have been most
satisfactory.
=P. canadensis=, =P. alba=, and =P. nigra= are likewise worthy of
extended culture, for they succeed well by the seaside. They all stand
the breeze from the sea, are perfectly hardy, and afford a great amount
of shelter.
The =Mountain Ash= (_Pyrus Aucuparia_).—Although valueless, or
nearly so, for the quantity of timber it produces, yet, as a hardy,
free-growing tree, the mountain ash, or rowan tree, merits attention
from planters of exposed seaside land. All along the coast of Great
Britain this pretty tree may be found growing luxuriantly, and in such
situations affording a great amount of shelter to other less hardy
kinds of trees and shrubs. It may be planted without fear of harm,
down even to highwater mark, and where the soil is of the poorest
description. It is thus one of the most useful of trees for planting as
shelter along the roughest and most wind-tortured parts of the coast.
The =Hoary Alder= (_Alnus incana_) and the =Common Alder= (_A.
glutinosa_) can hardly be excelled for planting in wet portions of
cold, wind-swept ground, and in the vicinity of the sea. Both trees
grow with the greatest freedom, and are perfectly hardy, standing the
first brunt of the saline blasts in a most commendable and praiseworthy
manner.
I have found it to be a good plan where shelter is wanted on bare
coast-tracts, if the quality of soil be at all suitable, to plant the
alders pretty closely, and when they have attained to 15 ft. or 20 ft.
in height, to cut every alternate one over at ground level. By so doing
a number of stout shoots are thrown out early in the following spring,
which, as they grow with great rapidity, soon fill up the blanks
occasioned by cutting over the young trees.
After these have had several years’ growth the remaining half of the
original crop should be cut over, and when all have started from the
stools a first-class shelter is obtained. Of course, damp portions of
the ground should be selected on which to plant the alder.
The =English Maple= (_Acer campestre_) can well hold its own as a tree
for planting on exposed seaside grounds. It is one of the hardiest
trees with which I am acquainted, growing on exposed hillsides and at
considerable elevations in a way that seems to attract the attention of
every one.
Hedges or fringe fences of the native maple have succeeded amazingly
in several maritime woods in which it was planted, and in places, too,
where the wind blew loud and long.
The =Scotch Elm= (_Ulmus montana_) comes next on the list of such trees
as I would recommend for the purpose under consideration. It affords
plenty of shelter, as it grows freely from the root-stock, sending up
numerous suckers, and is so hardy and proof against damage from storms
that it may safely be planted in wind-swept districts by the seaside.
=Birch= (_Betula alba_) and =Ash= (_Fraxinus excelsior_) are other
trees that repeated experiments have proved to be well suited for
withstanding the ocean’s blast and for planting in poor, rocky soils.
The =Turkey Oak= (_Quercus Cerris_), with just a small amount of
shelter, will be found a most valuable tree for planting within the
influence of the sea. It thrives well in very poor soils, and when in
full leaf is capable of affording a great amount of shelter.
The =Evergreen Oak= (_Q. Ilex_) has proved itself to be peculiarly
fitted for planting as shelter in exposed and maritime districts. In
the formation of seaside plantations, but particularly where, from
the frequency and force of the storms, few trees can succeed, I have
planted the evergreen oak with the greatest success.
The trees just treated of have no equals, among such as have yet been
introduced, for withstanding cold seaside winds, a trial of many other
varieties only resulting in proving their unfitness for planting in
such situations. Two or three others, such as the =English Oak=,
=Hornbeam=, =Beech= and =English Elm=, might be added to the list,
but they can only be recommended for planting where at least partial
shelter is afforded.
CONIFERÆ
Foremost amongst these I must, from long personal experience and a fair
trial of several kinds under exactly similar conditions in every way,
place the =Austrian Pine= (_Pinus austriaca_). It grows with unusual
freedom, and affords a greater amount of shelter than any other tree
with which I am at present acquainted.
That it will succeed equally well with the _P. Pinaster_ when subjected
to the sea-breeze, I am now fully convinced, while the amount of
shelter it affords, and rapidity of growth, place it far ahead of that
species for the purpose we are now considering. It may not succeed so
well as the Pinaster when planted in pure sand, on the sea-coast, and
this is the only point that can be adduced in favour of the latter
species over _P. austriaca_.
In forming many large woods along the coast of Northern England I used
the Austrian pine in preference to several others, and happily, too,
for it has succeeded in a surprising manner, trees of ten years’ growth
being fully 13 ft. in height, and nearly as much in diameter of branch
spread. With such a screen as that afforded by the hardy Austrian,
many half-tender trees can be planted farther inland; and this is the
method of procedure that I have found to be most successful in getting
up shelter along bare and fully exposed parts of the shores of Western
England and Scotland.
The =Cluster Pine= (_P. Pinaster_) and its smaller-growing variety
_P. maritima_ have a world-wide reputation for their suitability
for planting on exposed seaside tracts of ground. That they are of
great value for planting on sandy wastes is a fact that cannot be
gainsaid—indeed, few other trees could succeed or eke out an existence
in pure sand and where the roots come in contact with the salt water.
A great drawback to this pine is its long tap-root and want of fibrous
roots; it transplants with difficulty, but this, as in various other
species of pine, may be greatly obviated by careful nursery management.
In my own opinion the typical tree is hardly equal to the variety
_maritima_ either for shelter or withstanding the sea-breeze. The
variety, too, is, if anything, the most valuable for shelter-giving, it
having a much greater inclination to retain the lower branches intact.
The =Corsican Pine= (_P. laricio_) quite equals the Austrian in its
powers of withstanding long-continued and cold winds. That it does not
succeed so well on the sea-coast is a fact of which, from repeated
experiments, I am fully aware. The Corsican pine, too, is a valuable
timber-producer—a fact that is well worthy of consideration in
extensive planting.
In the =Giant Arborvitæ= (_Thuja gigantea_) we have another excellent
addition to the list of trees that have been found suitable for
planting on exposed maritime grounds. It grows with great rapidity, and
I have never found even a solitary example of this tree having been
uprooted or injured during the most severe storms. On the sea-coast of
Wales I have used the giant arborvitæ largely in the formation of woods
and plantations, and with great success. It transplants well, even when
of large size, and is readily propagated.
=Pinus montana= may also be recommended for afforesting tracts
of ground by the sea-coast. It is a tree of undoubted hardihood,
withstanding cold and cutting winds in a worthy manner.
The =Scotch Pine= (_P. sylvestris_), though by no means equal to the
above for planting by the seaside, must on no account be omitted from
our list, for it is a hardy, fast-growing specimen, and one that can
do battle with very severe and long-lasting storms. It should not be
planted where it will meet the first brunt of the storm, but given a
little shelter, such as that afforded by the above-named kinds. The
varieties of pine just named may all be relied upon as peculiarly well
fitted for the purpose under consideration.
The =Large-fruited Cypress= (_Cupressus macrocarpa_) and =Pinus
insignis= might be added to the list, both being well suited for
maritime planting—inland, however, they cannot be relied upon. _Pinus
insignis_ grows with unabated vigour on the wind-swept coast of the
Isle of Anglesey, and stands the breeze in a most surprising and
praiseworthy manner.
The =Atlantic Cedar= (_Cedrus atlantica_) and =Swiss Stone Pine=
(_Pinus Cembra_) do fairly well as seaside trees.
SHRUBS
The =Sea Buckthorn= (_Hippophea rhamnoides_) is unquestionably the
best all-round shrub for planting as a shelter by the sea-coast with
which we are acquainted. To see it in several districts of Scotland,
growing amongst almost pure sand, and where constantly exposed to
fierce blasts, shows how valuable a shrub it is for exposed maritime
situations. For affording shelter it is one of the best shrubs that I
know of, the unusually twiggy branches sifting and dividing up the wind
in a most remarkable manner.
=Tamarix gallica= and =T. germanica= are two excellent seaside shrubs,
and such as are well suited for planting on exposed places. They grow
with great freedom, transplant well, and are readily propagated. Even
in pure sand they seem quite at home, growing freely, and producing a
rich abundance of their showy flowers. In very exposed parts of the
coast, and when fully open to direct sea-blasts, we have frequently
seen the tamarisk fully a dozen feet in height, and nearly as much in
branch-spread. Though little known _T. germanica_ is a most valuable
seaside shrub, about 6 ft. in height, with small leaves, and spikes of
conspicuous red flowers.
The =Box Thorn= (_Lycium europæum_) may be introduced without fear of
harm to the seaside woods, for it is not only perfectly hardy in such
situations, but it bears constant exposure to wind as well as any shrub
I know of. Hedges of this plant have been formed in many maritime parts
of England and Wales, the only support being a few stakes driven in
here and there along the line of fence. It will grow in pure sand, and
when lashed by the waves.
The =Snowberry= (_Symphoricarpus racemosus_) comes next on the
list of shrubs that have been found suitable for the purpose under
consideration. It is a plant of extraordinary hardihood, one that
increases rapidly from the root-stock and affords a fair amount of
shelter.
The =Tree Mallow= (_Lavatera arborea_) can hardly be surpassed for
shore planting, where it frequently attains to a height of 10 ft. It
has been found of great utility in some of the islands along the coast
of Scotland.
=Spirea Adiantifolia= is a fitting companion for the latter, growing
and flowering very freely in wind-swept gardens along the Scottish
coast.
=Griselinia littoralis= has stood a severe test as to its capability
for withstanding cold winds blowing in from the sea.
The =Dogwood= (_Cornus sanguinea_) and =Flowering Currant= (_Ribes
sanguineum_) are, likewise, excellent seaside shrubs, of perfect
hardihood and readily propagated.
The =Tree Purslane= (_Atriplex halimus_) is also a really valuable
shrub that is totally indifferent to the salt spray, and from its
dwarf, evergreen nature, and silvery-scaly leaves, is also more or less
ornamental. It does not seem to mind either wind blowing direct from
the sea, or whether the soil in which it is planted is of only moderate
quality.
The =Laurustinus= (_Viburnum tinus_).—Where the situation is not too
exposed, this is a most valuable and ornamental shrub.
=Lilac= of various species are well adapted for planting by the
seaside, the two kinds most to be recommended being the =Common= and
=Persian= (_Syringa vulgaris_ and _S. Persica_).
The =Spanish Broom= (_Spartium junceum_) has been used with the
greatest success all along the coast, being perfectly hardy, and an
excellent subject for cold, draughty positions.
The =Tree Groundsel= (_Baccharis halimifolia_) is not only a shrub of
great beauty, but one that is perfectly hardy, and well adapted for
planting by the seaside. It will thrive in almost pure sand, but it is
all the better for a poor gravelly loam, and seems to delight in the
ozone of the seaside atmosphere.
Both the =Portugal Laurel= (_Prunus lusitanica_) and =Sweet-Bay=
(_Laurus nobilis_) are valuable evergreen shrubs for seaside planting.
From their large size and compact habit, they afford a great amount of
shelter.
The =Common Holly= (_Ilex aquifolium_) and its golden form both do well
at the seaside, and this may also be said of the =Common= and =Scotch
Laburnums=. They may be used with best advantage where the direct force
of the blast is broken up.
The =Common Gorse= (_Ulex europæus_) and the =Broom= (_Cytisus
scoparius_) should on no account be omitted from our list of shrubs
that are valuable for maritime wastes where the wind exerts its full
power.
The above shrubs include the principal of such as can be recommended
for planting along the sea-coast, but where good shelter is afforded
by the trees named in this chapter, a few others might be recommended
for trial. These include the =Strawberry Tree= (_Arbutus unedo_),
=Euonymus japonicus=, =Berberis Darwinii=, =Ligustrum Ovalifolium=,
=Daphne Mezereon=, and =D. laureola=, =Ruscus aculeatus=, =Hypericum
calycinum=, =Vinca major= and =V. minor=, and several kinds of thorn.
The =Maram=, or =Sea Matweed= (_Psamma arenaria_) is one of the most
useful grasses with which I am acquainted for binding shifting sands on
the sea-coast. Not only so, but by using it as a pioneer, the amount
of shelter it affords renders other more difficult subjects by no means
hard to cultivate. It usually attains to a height of from 2 ft. to
2½ ft., much depending on the situation, whether partially sheltered
or fully exposed. The root-stock creeps widely, some specimens that
have been followed up in the sand being of the amazing length of 35
yards. Amongst loose and drifting sand the running roots find what is
most suitable for the welfare of the plant, and it is astonishing with
what persistency they bind in an unusually short space of time these
shifting hills of almost dust-dry sand. In planting, place the plants
in parallel lines, about 16 in. apart, and at a distance of 12 in.
from each other. Large plants may be subdivided to almost any extent.
A garden line is stretched along the ground, a notch 10 in. deep taken
out, the grass inserted therein and filled with sand, and afterwards
firmly trodden. That the sea matweed is a most useful plant for fast
gaining a footing on sandy tracts of sea-coast, and thus allowing of
following up with the shelter-giving trees, cannot be disputed.
The =Lymegrass= (_Elymus arenarius_) is also valuable for growing in
almost pure sand on the sea-coast.
It is of tall, elegant growth, and is readily increased from root
divisions.
The following trees and shrubs, alphabetically arranged, are
recommended for seaside planting:—
TREES FOR THE SEA-COAST.
Acer campestre Pinus Pinaster maritima
—— creticum Populus canadensis
—— Pseudo-platanus —— nigra
Alnus glutinosa —— nigra
—— incana Pyrus Aucuparia
Betula alba —— Aria
Carpinus betulus Quercus Ilex
Cedrus atlantica —— Robur
Cupressus macrocarpa Salix alba
Fagus sylvatica —— Caprea
Fraxinus excelsior —— Forsteriana
Pinus austriaca —— Russelliana
—— laricio Thuja gigantea
—— montana Ulmus alata
—— Pinaster —— campestris
—— montana
SHRUBS FOR THE SEA-COAST.
Atriplex halimus Lavatera arborea
Aucuba japonica Lycium europæum
Cerasus lusitanica Rhamnus frangula
—— Padus Ribes sanguineum
Cytisus Laburnum Rosa spinosissima
—— scoparius Shepherdia argentea
Euonymus japonicus Spirea adiantifolia
—— europæus Syringa persica
Fabiana imbricata —— vulgaris
Griselinia littoralis Symphoricarpus racemosus
Hippophæ rhamnoides Tamarix gallica
Ilex Aquifolium —— germanica
—— Aquifolium aurea Ulex Europæus
Laurus nobilis Viburnum tinus
GRASSES.
Elymus arenarius
Psamma arenaria
CHAPTER IX
TOWN PLANTING, AND THE TREES AND SHRUBS THAT ARE BEST ADAPTED FOR SMOKY
LOCALITIES
Probably no work connected with horticulture requires more judgment
and good management than the planting of trees and shrubs in urban
districts. The materials and soil of which streets and town gardens
are usually formed are ill-fitted for maintaining a healthy condition
in trees and shrubs for any length of time. This fact, coupled with
the impurities of the atmosphere in densely populated centres, has to
be constantly borne in mind. In more favourable districts all that is
necessary is to open a pit of sufficient size to contain the roots of
the tree or shrub to be planted; but in towns the soil, often as hard
as iron and composed mainly of refuse building materials, contains
but little plant food. For many years past careful observations have
been made, not only in London, but in Glasgow, Liverpool, Manchester,
Warrington and Dublin, as to which trees and shrubs succeed best in the
smoky localities of each town, and it is mainly by tabulating these
different experiences that satisfactory information on the subject
has been obtained. Coal smoke from the chimneys in the larger and
more crowded centres of industry is no doubt bad enough, but, when we
have to contend with an atmosphere that is largely impregnated with
the outcome from chemical, gas, or iron works, the difficulties to be
encountered are correspondingly increased.
The injurious effects of smoke have become much more pronounced during
the past century, and Sir William Richmond, R.A., told the annual
meeting of the Coal Smoke Abatement Society that Westminster Abbey
had suffered from more rapid decay in the last hundred years than in
all the previous centuries of its existence. The chief cause of the
destruction of the stonework has been shown to be the presence in the
air of sulphur acids: the stone is converted into sulphate of lime; in
the process of its formation this disintegrates the stone by expansion.
The connexion between smoke and stone decay appears to lie in the
action of invisible gases emitted from the smoke particles.
If stonework suffers so at the hands of smoke and sulphuric and other
acids, what, it may be asked, must the effect be on the foliage
of trees and shrubs—particularly such as are planted in the most
smoke-infested parts of our great towns and cities? When compared
with Continental cities—Paris, Brussels or Berlin—where tree-culture
is carried out most successfully, the atmosphere of British towns is
impregnated to a far greater extent with noxious fumes. Dry low-lying
and confined areas, particularly where excessive heat and atmospheric
impurities are present, are decidedly the worst, while open and
high-lying districts, though in the centre of a town, offer fewer
difficulties.
That certain trees and shrubs succeed best in particular towns is
a well known fact, and the smoke-proof London Plane is by no means
the best tree for some of the colliery districts; in Sheffield,
for instance, its place is largely taken by the Canadian Poplar.
In Manchester, the Lime would appear to thrive best, after which
the Elder, Thorn and Plane succeed in the order named. The
variegated-leaved Sycamore and the horse chestnut are favourites where
the smoke from collieries is most offensive. But many such cases
could be pointed out, and even in the case of bedding plants certain
species succeed best in particular localities. In the gardens about
the Royal Mint, where they are exposed to the deleterious fumes from
gold-refining works, Fuchsias do remarkably well; indeed, the dwarf
edging variety, Golden Treasure, thrives so well that advantage has
been taken of the fact to propagate some of the stock that is annually
required for one of the London parks from cuttings taken at the Mint.
In the East End of London the Creeping Jenny (_Lysimachia_) thrives
well as a window plant, while in the chemically impure atmosphere of
Lambeth one of the Veronicas is the favourite plant for indoor culture.
The St. John’s Worts (_Hypericum_) do not as a rule thrive well in
London; yet around the Tate Gallery, which is only divided by the
river from the Lambeth pottery district—the worst in the metropolis
for atmospheric impurities—one species at least flourishes amazingly,
and has produced flowers in abundance for many years past; while at
St. Paul’s Churchyard, the lesser Periwinkle (_Vinca minor_) has
become quite established and runs about freely. In Chancery Lane, at
the Record Office, the common Ivy, Bladder Senna, and Yucca do best.
In other parts of London, too, well known varieties of Campanula are
largely grown as pot plants. It is a somewhat strange fact, too,
that some varieties of trees and shrubs succeed better than the type
species in smoky localities, as witness the London Plane (a variety
of _Platanus orientalis_), variegated-leaved Sycamore, fastigiate
Poplar, two varieties of Pyrus, Weeping Elm, Weeping Ash, and several
varieties of Acacia, notably _Robinia pseudo-acacia inermis_ and _R.
pseudo-acacia Bessoniana_.
Similarly, amongst shrubs, we have the dwarf Holly, golden variegated
Euonymus, golden Privet, Ribes, double-flowered Gorse, _Euonymus
radicans variegata_, and others. With Grasses, too, some curious
experiences might be related. At the British Museum the Yarrow
completely ousted the Grasses from the plots in front of that building,
and in the moat of the Tower of London several Grasses that succeed
in less smoky parts of the metropolis quickly die out. Near the main
entrance to the Tower of London, and close to Billingsgate Fish Market,
considerable difficulty was experienced in getting the Plane trees
established; though in the matter of soil, and choice of strong sturdy
specimens, every possible care was taken. At last it was found that
the drip from the fish carts was the cause of the evil, and a remedy
was quickly found. In another garden, where dust, smoke, and soot
are plentiful, the Bladder Campion (_Silene inflata_), _Saponaria
officinalis_, the common Marigold, and Rye Grass seem positively to
revel. In situations almost constantly subjected to the sulphurous
fumes of the railway engines near Camden Town, and in the poorest of
soils, _Poa annua_ would appear to be quite at home. The chemical fumes
from the pottery works at Lambeth are well known to act injuriously
on vegetation generally, but the Mulberry, Fig, Sycamore, Turkey and
Evergreen Oaks thrive as well there as they do in any part of the
metropolis. The fumes given off from many of our city manufactories act
most perniciously on vegetation generally—a fact that was brought to my
notice by the behaviour of some of our most valuable smoke-resisting
trees and shrubs planted in the graveyard at St. Giles-in-the-Fields.
Meeting the gardener there I remarked on the wretched condition of the
trees and shrubs generally, his quick reply being, “Well! with Crosse &
Blackwell’s on the one side, and Nixey’s Black Lead Works on the other,
it’s a wonder there’s a living plant left!” Here the common Fig and
Black Poplar seemed better able to withstand the atmospheric conditions
than either the London Plane or Acacia. With the largely increased
use of coal gas for cooking purposes, improved grates, and the better
combustion of fuel, the atmosphere of certain districts of London,
has, however, become much less smoky than was the case a few years
ago, and in consequence vegetation generally succeeds better. This is
especially the case in some of the low-lying districts adjoining the
Thames where the “slot” system of providing gas for cooking purposes
has caused a great decrease in the consumption of coke and coal, with
a corresponding reduction of the attending evils of smoke and soot.
In one of the poorest parishes many of the inhabitants have taken
advantage of the facilities offered by the Gas Company in the matter
of cooking by means of gas provided by the “slot” system, which, in
comparison with coal, has been found not only cheaper, but cleaner
and handier to use. According to a competent authority the smoke
nuisance has, in consequence, greatly abated, and with the purer air,
the cultivation of window and other plants, as well as of trees and
shrubs, has been to some extent simplified. The electrification of the
Underground Railway has also had a beneficial effect on vegetation.
Although we cannot prevent fog, which is an atmospheric condition, yet
much can be done to prevent it being a dirty fog, and during the past
five years much has been done in that direction. Better roads with less
dust also assist largely in keeping the atmosphere of London in a pure
condition.
With the rage for coniferous trees which was at its height about half a
century ago, it is not surprising that several species of Cypress and
Cedar, the stately Pines and Arbor vitæs, as also the Araucaria and
Junipers, found their way into our town gardens and squares. Hosts of
evergreens, too, from almost every part of the world were introduced
into London, but few have been able to survive the smoky and otherwise
impure atmosphere of the great metropolis.
Deciduous trees and shrubs, both flowering and ornamental-leaved,
should certainly be regarded as the _sine qua non_ of the London
planter. Amongst evergreen trees few are suitable for town planting,
and, though a limited number of evergreen shrubs may succeed for a
time, yet the list of deciduous species is far more extensive. We have
only to take notice of such evergreens as the Holly, Rhododendron,
Laurel and all the conifers, with probably one exception, to find
how useless it is to plant them in expectation that they will give
satisfaction. This is not hard to account for, as in winter, when the
fires are all alight and smoke and soot the order of the day, the
leaves of evergreens are fully developed and in the best possible
condition for reaping the attending disadvantages. With deciduous
species the case is quite different, for these are, so to speak, asleep
when the deadly smoke and vapours are most abundant in our towns and
cities. I am quite aware that one occasionally sees evergreen shrubs
and trees in a fairly thriving condition; but it should be remembered
that in the majority of such cases they were planted when conditions
were much more favourable than at present.
It is, perhaps, to be regretted that evergreen shrubs do not succeed
better in smoky localities, being planted principally for their
refreshing colour in winter; but if our atmospheric conditions utterly
preclude the use of such, then it is folly to throw away money on
useless planting, and the winter aspect of deciduous trees and shrubs
is infinitely preferable to that of unhealthy evergreens. The bursting
into leaf of the deciduous tree or shrub is not shared to a like extent
by evergreens, which lack that delightful changeableness and the
interest that is attached to spring growth.
It is difficult to define accurately the boundaries of a town or
the worst smoke-infested areas, as far as tree and shrub growth is
concerned. In London, for instance, certain trees and shrubs which
positively refuse to live in the heart of the city do fairly well
in the suburbs, while still further out, where the atmosphere is
comparatively pure, they may thrive in quite a satisfactory way. These
thriving and non-thriving areas are sometimes very sharply defined,
and this has given rise to a false idea regarding certain trees and
shrubs that will rarely succeed in the more smoky parts when compared
with the same species which are found to do well in the outer suburbs.
High-lying and fairly open parts of a town are also far more conducive
to plant growth generally than those that are close and confined. In
town planting there is, however, no necessity for the almost monotonous
repetition of such trees as the Plane and Lime, or amongst shrubs, of
the Privet and Lilac, for there are many others that will do almost
equally well, and that are quite as ornamental. Probably the fact that
such are not well known would form an excuse for their absence, and
it is to be hoped that at least one object to be accomplished by the
writing of this book will be a greater interest in, and wider knowledge
of, the various species of trees, shrubs, and plants generally that
from long experience have been found suitable for planting in the town
garden.
=Preparation of the Ground.=—Generally speaking, the materials with
which roadways are made are not only unsuitable for tree cultivation,
but positively destructive to vegetation of almost every description.
This also applies to our squares, terraces, and open grounds around
houses, the soil of which is little other than refuse building
materials, and mainly composed of broken bricks and stones, gravel,
old mortar, iron, wood and shavings. In such a medium it is perfectly
useless to look for that healthy and vigorous growth which is so
essential in street trees, that are still further handicapped by having
to do battle above ground with the impurities of a town atmosphere.
Having for a number of years had to plant trees and shrubs in
many parts of London, it was found that in nearly every instance
substituting good soil for that found naturally was a first necessity.
Many failures in street planting from this neglect of providing
suitable soil could be pointed out, the result being that a section
of the public has become tired of the subject in consequence of the
initial expense and subsequent failures. Too often, also, the important
operations of preparing the ground and planting the trees are left in
the hands of the surveyor or builder, who has little or no knowledge
to fit him for the work, the operation being carried out by labourers
who are also entirely ignorant of what is required or the conditions
necessary for successful tree and shrub culture. The consequence is
that failure is almost certain, and the trees which were strong and
healthy when planted gradually become unhealthy and ultimately succumb
to a combination of circumstances which were brought about by the
ignorance of the operators.
Another source of failure in street planting is the generally pent-up
condition of the roots, for in several cases that have come under our
notice lately the planter seemed to think that it was quite enough to
cut a small hole in the pavement or street of sufficient size to hold
the roots of the tree to be inserted. Were the soil free, as we find
in a field, this system might answer; but where the roadway is hard as
iron and composed mainly of clinkers and gravel, the case is totally
different. Another fruitful source of failure in street planting
is placing the pavement in too close proximity to the stem of the
tree, and numerous instances could be pointed out where even old and
established specimens have suffered irreparable damage in consequence
of having the paving brought up too close to the stems.
The roots should always be allowed plenty of breathing room, and
to affect this a good-sized space should be railed off around each
tree and no pavement laid within it. Gratings may be placed on the
surface of the ground around the tree, should circumstances compel
such a course. By adopting either plan, a double benefit to the trees
is brought about by allowing free access of water to the roots and
preventing an accumulation of noxious gases in the soil, as would ensue
if the flagstone or pavements were used.
Where street trees are to be planted, the ground-surface should
in every instance be thoroughly broken up for a space of not less
than 8 ft. square, and to a depth of, say, 4 ft., the inferior soil
removed and replaced by that of good quality, preferably of a loamy
description, or loam and leaf soil in about equal proportions. Before
placing the fresh soil in position, the sides and bottom of each pit
should be thoroughly loosened with a pick or fork. By undermining the
sides of each pit, a much larger and freer root run will be provided,
and this will not necessitate so much of the street or pavement being
torn up as if the pits were of equal width at the top and bottom. We
have found, in London at least, that the addition of a small quantity
of leaf soil to the loam is highly beneficial to the growth of trees
by retaining dampness and encouraging root spread. The newly added
soil should be firmly trampled in the pit before planting is engaged
in. Sometimes, where the original soil is not of too inferior quality,
a small proportion has been mixed with the loam and leaf soil, but,
speaking generally, this course cannot be adopted.
In squares and gardens where shrub planting is to be engaged in,
a general renovation of the soil is also imperative, and this can
best be done by thoroughly trenching the soil to a depth of, say, 4
ft. and adding a large proportion of fresh loam or other soil. Deep
trenching and thoroughly breaking up and loosening the soil is a most
important factor in town planting, and should never be neglected.
Manure is sometimes added to the soil, but it is objectionable from
several points of view, and, if used at all, should be thoroughly
decomposed and incorporated in small quantity. Good loam and leaf soil
is infinitely preferable, and, where necessary, sandy soil makes a
good addition. A little fresh lime added to the soil has been found
most beneficial in town planting, and in old and exhausted borders,
where the soil has become tainted with chemical impurities, the value
of lime or chalk as a cleansing agent is not sufficiently appreciated.
Of course, where so-called American shrubs are to be planted—which is,
however, rarely attempted in London—neither chalk nor lime should be
added to the soil. This question of soil is so important that no one
planting street trees or shrubs can afford to ignore it, and while the
extra cost in providing it is but little, the advantages gained are
great.
=Preparing the Trees and Planting.=—Trees intended for planting in
towns, and especially alongside streets and footpaths, should be
specially prepared in the matter of transplanting and pruning. As tree
guards are a necessity in protecting trees by the sides of streets,
the trees must have their stems free of branches; therefore the buds
and branches on the stems need to be removed for a distance of 6 or
7 ft., whilst surplus leading shoots and ungainly branches should at
the same time receive attention in pruning. The tree also needs to be
frequently transplanted in order that an abundance of fibrous roots
may be produced, and every effort made to produce healthy, vigorous
specimens suitable for the uncongenial surroundings of their permanent
quarters. In street planting it is advisable to use trees that are from
12 to 14 ft. in height; and if these, for some years previously to
their final shift, have been specially prepared in the way of frequent
transplanting and careful pruning, little fear for their future
welfare need be entertained. Autumn or early spring planting is to be
recommended, the former time being in most cases preferable. As little
time as possible should be allowed to elapse between the lifting of the
tree in the nursery and its being transplanted in the new position.
Spread the roots out to their full extent around the stem and avoid
planting too deeply; the nursery mark on the stem serves as the best
guide as to the depth at which to plant. Planting too deeply under
the mistaken idea that doing so will secure the tree in the ground is
a fruitful source of decay and ultimate death of many street trees
planted in the metropolis, and it is not uncommon to see whole avenues
of trees that have made little or no progress for many years owing to
this cause. After a tree has been placed in an upright position on
the prepared site and the roots properly disposed, the soil should be
filled in and trampled firmly both amongst and over the roots. It may
be well to warn planters against the pernicious practice of allowing
leaves, packing materials, or grassy turf to come in contact with the
roots of newly-planted trees. In dry situations a saucer-shaped hollow
may be left around the stem of the newly-planted tree, while mulching
applied during dry and warm summers is to be recommended. The planting
of shrubs should be carried out with as much care as is used in the
case of trees. It is preferable to trench land in which shrubs are to
be planted rather than to make a separate pit for each shrub.
Street trees should be carefully matched—that is, those of similar
height and shape used in the same street. Too often this principle is
not observed, as in a new street near the Strand, where some of the
specimens are about 10 ft. high, others, 15 ft. and 20 ft. high—forming
a very irregular, badly matched row. Many newly-planted town trees are
destitute of leading shoots and have ungainly side branches—faults that
should never be permitted when choosing specimens for such an important
purpose. In choosing trees for street planting, the following rules
should be observed:—
1. Stout, healthy, well-rooted and recently transplanted trees should
alone be chosen.
2. They should, for the same street, be of nearly equal height and
branch spread.
3. Straight-stemmed trees, with stout leading shoots, are to be
preferred.
4. The height should range from, say, 12 ft. to 14 ft. or over, and the
strength of stem should be proportionate to the height.
5. Trees with wand-like, crooked, or cankered stems should be avoided
in street planting.
6. They should be beautiful, shade-giving, and easy of culture.
=Fencing and Staking.=—In order to prevent damage, newly-planted trees
should be fenced and staked at once. Of fences or guards there are
many kinds: they are made of wood, wire or iron. The iron tree guard
has many advantages over those of wood or expanded metal, and, being
made in two sections, it can be readily placed in position after the
tree has been planted. For trees from 12 to 14 ft. high the guards
need not exceed, say, 7 ft. in height, and preference should be given
to those in which the uprights are bent outwards at the top; for this
not only lessens the risk of interference with the branches, but is
pleasing in appearance. Sometimes it may not be considered necessary to
protect town trees, particularly such as are growing in side streets,
or in squares, but in every case firm staking is necessary in order to
prevent damage from wind.
Wooden tree guards consist of about half a dozen poles or uprights,
about 7 ft. long, joined together around the tree trunk by means of
wire. When compared with those of iron, they have, however, several
disadvantages; for they may be climbed with ease and they do not last
long. Where it is found sufficient to stake the trees without having
recourse to guards, ash poles, from 2 in. to 3 in. in diameter, and 10
ft. high, should be driven firmly into the ground as close to the stem
as possible. The tree should be tied with specially prepared tar rope,
which should be crossed between the stem and stake to prevent damage
by chafing. From time to time it will be necessary to see that the
band of string does not become too tight. On rare occasions only is it
necessary to stake shrubs, but this is sometimes advisable in exposed
positions or in the case of shrubs of unusually large size.
=Watering and After-Management.=—For a few years after being planted,
trees and shrubs will require a certain amount of attention in the
matter of watering and mulching during the prolonged heat and drought,
and also in preventing the evils attending excessive wind-swaying owing
to the stakes and moorings becoming defective.
The goat and wood leopard moth, as also numerous kinds of caterpillars,
attack newly-planted town trees, particularly the various species of
Pyrus, Thorn, Willow and Poplar. The former tunnel into the main stem
and render it so weak at the point attacked that it readily breaks
across during windy weather, while the caterpillars feed on the
foliage and greatly impair the health of the trees attacked. Spraying,
hand-picking and shaking are to be recommended in the case of the
caterpillars, while, to combat the goat and leopard moth, a small
quantity of cyanide of potassium can be inserted in the mouth of the
tunnel in order to dislodge or kill the insect.
Watering should preferably be performed in the evening, the ground
around the roots being thoroughly soaked, while mulching with
freshly-mown grass or old straw will prevent the too rapid evaporation
of the moisture. In extreme cases binding the stem with a hay rope is
to be recommended. In order to prevent straining of the roots and bark
chafing, the moorings of trees should receive a periodical examination.
The following trees and shrubs are to be recommended for town planting:—
[Illustration: PLANE TREE IN REGENT’S PARK]
TREES
The =Oriental= or =Common London Plane= (_Platanus orientalis
acerifolia_).—This variety of the oriental plane stands first in the
category of select town trees. Not only does it grow vigorously in
towns, but it is peculiarly well adapted for withstanding smoke and
other impurities of the atmosphere. Repeated experiments have clearly
proved that in London this tree flourishes better than any other, and
a visit to the Thames Embankment and several of the urban districts
will substantiate the statement; while the fine old tree which still
exists in Cheapside, and the equally beautiful specimen which has
hardly room for perfect development in the Court of Stationers’ Hall,
Ludgate Hill, afford other examples of how well suited this handsome
tree is for doing battle with the adverse conditions peculiar to the
great metropolis. As a diversity of opinion has existed about which
variety of plane it is that grows with such vigour in and around
London, it may be stated that, on a careful examination of a large
number of specimens, the variety _P.O. acerifolia_ was found not only
more commonly distributed, but, likewise, better suited for town
planting than the typical _P. orientalis_. This valuable variety is
readily distinguished from the normal plant by the less deeply divided
leaves, and from the American plane (_P. occidentalis_), with which it
is sometimes confounded, by the many fruit “balls” which are attached
to each peduncle, the fertile catkins of _P. occidentalis_ being, for
the greater part, produced singly.
But not only for its value as a town tree is the oriental plane much
sought after, but the giant proportions to which it attains, coupled
with the handsome, finely-cut leaves and easy habit of growth, render
it one of our most desirable ornamental trees. Further, it is of the
easiest culture, succeeding extremely well in soils of very opposite
qualities. Taking everything into consideration, we question whether
any other of our forest trees is equal in value to the plane for
purposes of town planting.
The =Maidenhair Tree= (_Ginkgo biloba_).—The maidenhair or ginkgo
tree is one of the most valuable that can be planted in the impure
atmosphere of a town garden. Few trees can compare with the one
in question for withstanding the deleterious effects produced on
vegetation generally by coming in too close contact with the impurities
of our great centres of industry. The ample delicate-green foliage
betrays—even late in the season, and when about to be cast off—little
evidence of the fierce struggle that must almost constantly go on
between vegetation and the smoke and filth of our towns and cities.
That the thick, leathery leaves and strong constitution of the tree
play an important part in keeping it free from disease is clearly
evident, while the annual renewal of the leaves enables it to cast off
the sooty nodules which work such havoc on the tender foliage of most
evergreen trees.
At several places in and around the great metropolis—and in places,
too, where one is almost stifled with the fumes from chimneys—this tree
may be seen in almost as fresh a condition as those in the open country.
The =Ailanthus= or =Tree of Heaven= (_Ailanthus glandulosa_) may be
seen in a very flourishing condition in many of the largest centres
of industry in Southern England. It has been largely planted in many
Continental cities, and has proved itself one of the few trees that is
capable of withstanding the impurities of a town atmosphere.
The =Black Italian Poplar= (_Populus monilifera_).—Next to the plane
amongst forest trees I consider the black Italian Poplar to be the
most valuable for planting in smoky towns. As a proof of this there
are to be seen numerous fine specimens of this tree in a flourishing
condition, and clothed with the most healthy foliage, in some of our
large cities—to wit, London, Glasgow, Liverpool and Manchester.
The =Canadian Poplar= (_P. canadensis_), and its variety, _P.C. nova_,
are excellent trees for planting in smoky localities. The former
succeeds admirably in the very centre of Sheffield, in the old parish
churchyard, where for hundreds of yards around not a particle of
living vegetation is to be seen. The variety _nova_ is a very superior
tree for street planting, it being far more ornamental, and of more
rapid growth than the black Italian poplar, and equally noticeable
for retaining a healthy and flourishing condition under the adverse
circumstances connected with a town atmosphere.
The =Abele Poplar= (_P. alba_) grows with great freedom when subjected
to smoke and foul air. In the very heart of our largest towns it may be
seen flourishing in a manner that is almost incredible.
The =Lombardy Poplar= (_P. fastigiata_) is another tree that has been
planted with some success in and around many of our largest cities,
but it cannot equal any of the foregoing for withstanding the baneful
effects of a tainted atmosphere. In the outskirts of towns, where air
is purer than amid chimneys pouring forth their volumes of smoke, the
Lombardy poplar succeeds fairly well, and imparts an air of grandeur
that could hardly otherwise be obtained.
The =Cucumber Tree= (_Magnolia acuminata_).—Few planters are aware of
how valuable this tree is for withstanding the germs and soot of large
towns. Experiments have, however, resulted in this highly ornamental
tree being added to the list.
The =Tulip Tree= (_Liriodendron tulipifera_).—Excellent examples are
not wanting of how valuable a tree this is for towns and streets.
It seems to have a wonderful recuperative power, for, scorched,
blackened, and encrusted as may appear the falling foliage, yet in the
following spring it again puts forth a garb of the freshest and richest
greenery. The remarkable four-lobed, truncate leaves render the tree
almost without an equal for ornamental planting, while its undoubted
smoke-resisting qualities place it high in the rank among town trees.
The =Indian Bean= (_Catalpa bignonioides_).—For various reasons
this fast-growing tree is to be recommended for planting in smoky
localities. It grows with great vigour in many smoky centres of
industry, is a tree of handsome proportions, and, when fully
established, flowers freely.
A valuable trait in the character of the Indian bean is that should
accident befall it, and the stem get injured, numerous strong suckers
are produced, which, as they grow with great rapidity, soon take the
place of the original.
The =Common Mulberry= (_Morus nigra_) and the =white-fruited Mulberry=
(_M. alba_) may be seen growing satisfactorily in several of the old
gardens and nurseries of the metropolis, where they are now buried
alive, as might be said, in stones and mortar. That they are excellent
town trees will be admitted by every one who sees the fine specimens in
Liverpool and Manchester.
The =Honey Locust= (_Gleditschia triacanthos_) is a very suitable
subject for planting in smoky localities. In many of the worst
smoke-infested parts of London and Manchester are seen goodly specimens
of this handsome tree—not poor, miserable trees, but, from their great
size, wealth of foliage, and general appearance, betokening perfect
health amid their rather adverse surroundings.
The =False Acacia= (_Robinia Pseudo-acacia_).—Almost by the hundred
can the false acacia be seen in London and many other English towns,
thus proving that it is one of the most valuable trees that we possess
for withstanding the injurious effects of an impure atmosphere.
What renders this acacia of greatest value as a town tree is that it
retains its rich verdure till well on in autumn. The varieties known as
=Decaisneana=, =inermis=, =microphylla=, =macrophylla=, =sophoræfolia=,
and the upright-habited are most to be desired.
[Illustration: THE BEAM TREE IN LONDON]
The =White Beam Tree= (_Pyrus Aria_).—In many of the confined spaces in
Glasgow the white beam tree grows luxuriously, and produces annually
great quantities of its brightly-tinted berries.
The =Lime= (_Tilia europæa_).—Where the situation is not too confined,
and where soot and smoke do not abound, the lime may, and does,
succeed; but in the worst parts of the metropolis it soon shows signs
of distress, the tops of the branches dying off, and the whole tree
sooner or later showing the fierce struggle it has to endure with smoke
and fumes. As an avenue tree in the more airy and pure parts of a
town, the lime has certainly few equals, its general contour and the
pleasing shade it affords being points of special recommendation.
The =Sycamore= (_Acer pseudo-platanus_).—This tree may be classed as
amongst the most useful for planting in smoky towns.
In Warrington, where the noxious emanations from alkali and other
chemical works are most disastrous in their effects on vegetation, the
sycamore is one of the few trees that grow satisfactorily. Being a
rapid and strong grower, it is thus seen to be, for a certain time at
least, unaffected by its inimical surroundings. The variegated variety
would seem from recent experiments to be preferable, and better adapted
for smoky localities than the normal form.
The =Weeping Ash= (_Fraxinus excelsior pendula_) would seem to
be superior to the common ash for planting in towns. It thrives
satisfactorily in many of our largest centres of industry—to wit,
London, Liverpool, Glasgow and Manchester.
The =Horse Chestnut= (_Æsculus hippocastanum_) may be seen in a fairly
satisfactory way in many town parks, but only where it is not exposed
to smoke and soot to any great extent. In confined spaces both it and
the =English Elm= (_Ulmus campestris_) soon show signs of distress,
the points of the branches gradually becoming unhealthy, and the trees
dying off prematurely. Taking everything into consideration, neither
of these trees can be recommended for planting in smoky districts.
The =Birch=, =Walnut=, =Hornbeam=, and one or two kinds of =Willow=
will succeed in the less smoky parts of a town; but they are not to be
recommended for planting where the air is constantly impregnated with
soot and dust.
The =Mountain Ash=, or =Rowan Tree= (_Pyrus aucuparia_) and =Bird
Cherry= (_Cerasus Padus_) are both good town trees, and excellent
examples of both may be seen in the back streets and slums of London.
=Sophora japonica= is well worthy of recommendation as a tree that
is admirably suited for planting in towns. It is of large and rapid
growth, with elegant dark green pinnate leaves. Being a native of China
and Japan, it may not be perfectly hardy in the northern portions
of the British Isles, but it succeeds well in Southern England, and
thrives admirably in the most smoke-infested parts of London.
=Thorns= of various kinds succeed well in towns, but they must not be
recommended for the most smoky and confined localities.
The =Tansy-leaved Thorn= (_Cratægus tanacetifolia_) is an excellent
member of the family for town planting.
SHRUBS
Of these there is rather a long list of kinds that are suitable for
planting in smoky localities.
Evidently deciduous species possess an advantage over evergreen kinds
in the total annual renewal of their leaves, and hence it follows that,
as with trees, deciduous shrubs should have the preference.
The following list includes only such kinds as have been proved
suitable for town planting:—
=Osmanthus ilicifolius= is one of the handsomest of evergreen shrubs,
and also one of the few that succeed, in a satisfactory way, when
subjected to the impurities of a town atmosphere. In the smokiest
districts of both London and Liverpool it is unquestionably the best
all-round shrub.
=Ligustrum coriaceum= is a fitting companion to the last, so far,
at least, as its powers of withstanding the effects of an impure
atmosphere are concerned. Being an evergreen, it is peculiarly well
suited for planting in the town garden, where it grows with great
freedom.
=Olearia Hastii= and =O. macrodonta= are excellent shrubs for the
London garden.
=Aucuba japonica.=—This well-known evergreen shrub is of great value
for planting in urban districts, it being able to do battle with a more
than ordinary amount of atmospheric impurities. For this reason it has
been largely planted in town squares and gardens, in the most crowded
and densely populated parts.
=Griselinia littoralis.=—Although a little-known evergreen, this is
well suited for town planting, experiments having proved it to be a
most valuable addition to the limited number of shrubs suitable for
such a place.
=Hibiscus Syriacus= is one of the few shrubs that can successfully
battle with an impure atmosphere. It is a shrub which town residents
should plant freely if they have a bit of ground that they want to look
pretty.
The =Warfaring Tree= (_Viburnum lantana_) does not receive that amount
of attention to which on its merits it is entitled. It succeeds well in
some of the most filthy and smoky districts of our largest cities.
The =Venetian Sumach= (_Rhus cotinus_) is a much-neglected shrub, but
for general usefulness it can hardly be surpassed. It is peculiarly
suitable for planting in cities.
The =Stag’s Horn Sumach= (_Rhus typhina_) must, on no account, be
omitted, as it is a shrub of curious appearance and one that thrives
well in soot and dirt.
=Leycesteria formosa= is a capital town plant; this may also be said of
the =Flowering Currant= (_Ribes sanguineum_)—indeed, too much praise
can hardly be bestowed on these shrubs for planting in the town garden
and shrubbery.
=Skimmia japonica= and the =Snowy Mespilus= (_Amelanchier Botryapium_),
too, succeed well in smoke-infested districts; and the various kinds
of Lilac—particularly the Common and Persian—have few equals as town
shrubs.
In the =Kentucky Coffee-Tree= (_Gymnocladus canadensis_) and =Bladder
Senna= (_Colutea arborescens_) will be found two most useful shrubs for
the town garden.
=Phillyrea Vilmoriniana=, =Forsythia viridissima=, and the =Strawberry
Tree= (_Arbutus unedo_) are all more or less suitable for town planting
where the atmospheric conditions are not too seriously affected by
smoke and dust.
The =Double Furse= (_Ulex europæus florepleno_) is one of our
handsomest flowering-shrubs, and a good addition to the list of such as
are suitable for planting in town gardens and squares.
The =Spurge Laurel= (_Daphne laureola_) grows freely in many a town
garden—indeed, it is no uncommon thing to see large and well-balanced
specimens where smoke and filth are the order of the day.
=Cotoneasters= of various kinds succeed well as town plants. Those
to be particularly noted are _C. frigida_, _C. Simonsii_, and _C.
vulgaris_.
=Euonymus japonicus= is another excellent shrub, being almost
smoke-defying.
The double-flowered forms of =Prunus sinensis= and the equally
ornamental =P. triloba= all succeed well as town plants; while the
=Almonds= are quite as good.
=Koelreuteria paniculata=, the =Laurustinus= (_Viburnum tinus_),
=Weigelia rosea=, =W. amabilis=, =Deutzia scabra=, the common =Green
Box=, =Gum Cistus= (_C. ladaniferus_), =Mahonia aquifolia=, =M.
Bealii=, and =M. japonica= are all more or less suitable for town
gardens, but not for those in the most smoke-infested parts. The =Japan
Quince= (_Cydonia japonica_), =Hypericum Nepalense=, and =Euonymus
radicans= all do well when subjected to the town atmosphere.
CLIMBERS
Of shrubs suitable for covering walls, trellises, and arbours, and
able to resist the dire influences of smoke and soot, there are a few
valuable and well-tried kinds.
The =Virginian Creeper= (_Ampelopsis hederacea_) has few equals as
a town plant, thriving successfully in the midst of our busiest
centres of industry. Many instances could be pointed out in which this
handsome climber grows with the greatest freedom in the most impure and
smoke-laden atmosphere.
The =Common Ivy= (_Hedera helix_) is, perhaps, the most valuable of all
climbing plants for using in smoke-infested localities. In some of the
courts near Ludgate Hill, a district of London that is by no means free
from smoke and dust, the ivy climbs houses to a height of 60 ft., and
surprises one by its fresh appearance in such localities.
The =Evergreen=, or =Trumpet=, =Honeysuckle= (_Lonicera sempervirens_)
is another shrub of great merit for town planting, as it thrives well
in confined spaces, and where the atmosphere is very impure.
=Cratægus Pyracantha= is a most valuable wall shrub for the town
garden. It is of free growth, stands smoke well, and is one of the
handsomest berry-bearing plants in cultivation.
=Jasminum nudiflorum= needs little description, as it is one of our
handsomest wall-plants. For smoky districts it is invaluable, blooming
freely when flowers are scarce, and seeming to heed but little the
impurities of a town atmosphere.
[Illustration: THE SAVIN, OR JUNIPER, AS A TOWN SHRUB]
The =Vine= (_Vitis vinifera_) must not be omitted from our list, it
being an excellent plant for withstanding soot, smoke, dust and heat.
CONIFEROUS TREES
Few of these, if any, succeed in a satisfactory way, when constantly
subjected to the impurities of a town atmosphere.
Where the conditions are at all favourable the =Austrian Pine=
(_Pinus austriaca_), =Thyiopsis Dolabrata=, =Toxodium distichum=,
and =Cupressus Lawsoniana= do fairly well, but they are not to be
recommended for general town planting.
=Retinospora plumosa aurea= has stood for many years in one of the
most smoky districts of Glasgow, and at present looks almost as well
as it did when brought from the country, while the =Savin= (_Juniperus
Sabina_) may generally be relied upon.
CHAPTER X
TREES SUITABLE FOR HEDGEROW AND FIELD PLANTING
The well-founded complaint that hedgerow and field trees harbour
birds to the serious destruction of the grain crops is largely
counterbalanced by their ornamental appearance and the shelter they
afford both to man and beast.
In proceeding to consider the trees that are most suitable for hedgerow
and field planting four important points must be kept in view. (1) That
the spread of branches is, comparatively speaking, small in proportion
to the tree’s height; (2) that the roots have a downward tendency, or
do not ramify to too great an extent; (3) that the tree is well adapted
for exposed situations and standing singly; and (4) that the timber
value is such as to compensate in some degree for the cost of planting
and after-management in the matter of pruning and fencing. Although we
rarely find all these qualities concentrated in one tree, still, with
careful choice and good after-management, much may be done to produce
the desired effect, even in trees of a partially opposite character.
That the wrong class of timber is often planted in our hedgerows and
fields is painfully apparent to every one who has paid attention to
the subject—trees of wide-spreading habit both in root and branch
occupying positions and doing irreparable damage, where others of
less obtrusive nature could with advantage have been selected to take
their place. Timely and judicious pruning is of the utmost importance
in the production of hedgerow timber: but to be productive of the
best results, the work must be attended to early, and prosecuted at
intervals, as by skilfully shortening the branches from time to time,
the spread of root is also checked, thereby securing a double benefit
to the farmer and the land.
The =Cornish Elm= (_Ulmus cornubiense_), unfortunately, is far too
seldom seen either as a standard or in our woodlands, for which the
propagator is greatly to blame, there not being offered anything like
a sufficient quantity to meet the demand. As a park or hedgerow tree
this distinct and well-marked variety of the elm has much to recommend
it—such as a narrow branch-spread in proportion to the height,
suitability for exposed situations, and the very decided ornamental
character it imparts to the landscape when properly placed.
The principal advantages of this tree for hedgerow or field planting
are that no pruning is required to keep the branches in bounds, that
the spread of branches is very small in proportion to the tree’s
height, and that the roots do not approach too near the surface, or
ramify to any great extent, so as to become injurious to crops in their
immediate vicinity.
The =English Elm= (_Ulmus campestris_) is another tree of value for
hedgerow planting, and is, perhaps, more commonly used for that purpose
than any other. Like the Cornish variety, though in very much less
degree, it has an upward inclination, the ramification of its branches
being narrow in proportion to its height, while as an ornamental tree
and valuable timber-producer it is held in high esteem.
As a shelter tree it is of great value, and as the branches,
particularly the lower, seldom spread to a great extent, the injury
caused to the adjoining crop is usually not very serious.
The =British Oak= (_Quercus Robur_) is of about equal value with
the elm for hedgerow planting—indeed by careful manipulation it is
even superior to that tree, being, perhaps, less injurious to the
herbage beneath it, and the roots having a greater downward tendency.
As an ornamental tree and valuable timber-producer the oak requires
no praise from us, these qualities having been recognised from the
earliest date.
It bears pruning with impunity, so that all ungainly or far-spreading
branches can be cut back or foreshortened at pleasure; while those near
the ground, which in any way interfere with the fence or crop, can, by
judicious management, be altogether removed. Several of the fastigiate
forms of the oak are equally, if not better, suited for hedgerow
planting.
The =Lombardy Poplar= (_Populus fastigiata_).—Although of but little
value as a timber-producer, yet, as an ornamental tree of singular
habit and appearance, the Lombardy poplar is almost unique amongst our
hardy deciduous trees.
When planted in judiciously-arranged clumps in the corners of
fields, or hedgerows, this poplar produces a most pleasing effect
in the landscape: and, being of close, fastigiate growth, it is not
in the least injurious to crops in its immediate vicinity. No tree
is, however, more readily misplaced than the one in question; and
in planting it is well to avoid the prevalent mistake of placing in
lines, squares, round or oval forms, or even in single specimens, these
methods being highly objectionable and devoid of good taste—that is, if
we desire to preserve in the landscape a natural appearance.
The =Sycamore= (_Acer pseudo-platanus_), as a standard tree, either in
field or fence, is worthy of attention, not only for its well-known
ornamental character, but also on account of the great value of the
wood produced, as it is in this latter respect, perhaps, second to
none. As a farmer’s tree it is, also, not one of the worst; for,
although the branches incline to spread, still, by careful manipulation
in the way of pruning, this may be corrected without doing injury
to too great an extent to the ornamental qualities of the tree. For
imparting both shade and shelter to farm stock the sycamore may be used
with the best advantage. Few trees produce such valuable timber when
grown singly or in clumps in the corners of fields and paddocks as
the sycamore, and no other repays so fully the damage it occasions to
fences and the surrounding ground.
The =Hornbeam= (_Carpinus betulus_), for exposed situations and poor
soils, has few, if any, equals. The roots do not run near the surface,
but, like those of the oak, derive sustenance at a considerable
distance from it, and this quality, combined with its somewhat upright
inclination of growth and hardy nature, renders it well adapted for
hedgerow or field planting, where shelter combined with effect is
required.
The =Lime= (_Tilia Europæa_), although one of our most ornamental
trees, can hardly be recommended as suitable for situations in which
the underlying herbage is at stake. For this latter reason alone,
however, can it be omitted from our list, and, as it bears pruning
well, does not to any great extent impoverish the adjoining ground.
It is at all times a pleasing object in the landscape, and it will
therefore be seen that the evil done by shade is in a great degree
compensated for.
Amongst coniferous trees, if we except the =Larch= and =Scotch Fir=,
few are at all suitable for the end in question. The larch is a
much-neglected fence and park tree, this being attributable to an
erroneous impression that it is of too stiff and cold an appearance,
either for standing singly or giving effect to the landscape.
Nothing can, however, be farther from the facts, as when placed so
that its fine form is seen to advantage, few deciduous trees are
more picturesque than the larch, or offer a better contrast to the
ordinary run of our forest trees. It also occasions less damage to
the undergrowing herbage than most trees, while, at the same time,
it enriches the soil to a great extent by the annual shedding of its
leaves.
The =Scotch Fir=, especially for shelter-giving purposes, has much to
recommend it for being extensively planted as stock-shelter in the
corners of exposed fields.
As it usually rises to a great height without branches, it cannot be
considered as extremely injurious to its surroundings, although the
shallow-running roots can hardly be spoken of as non-injurious to the
greensward.
=Planting and Fencing.=—Whether for planting in the hedgerow or singly
in the fields, good, strong, well-rooted specimens should always be
used—indeed, it is well when a home nursery is on the estate to have
these specially prepared, by frequent transplantings for a few years
previous to their final planting out. The nursery management will
require both care and experience, so that trees with strong, fibrous
roots equally distributed around the stem may be produced; lanky,
ill-grown, and ill-rooted plants having but a poor chance of succeeding
under the circumstances. From 10 ft. to 14 ft. will be found the most
suitable size for the purpose under consideration. The pits for their
reception should be opened of sufficient size to admit the roots
without cramping or bending, the bottom and sides being made loose
and free with a pick—it will be all the better if the pits have been
opened for some time previously to planting, the winter frosts having a
beneficial effect in clearing and pulverizing the soil.
This is, however, seldom convenient, as, if in the field, they become
filled in, and trampled on by cattle, while gaps in the fences
occasioned by these cannot well remain open for any length of time.
The better plan—at least, we have found it so—is to open the pits,
plant the trees, and have these fenced in on the same day, as by
this method no part of the work has ever to be done a second time,
everything being finished up as the work proceeds. In planting, be
careful to spread the roots out in an even manner around the stem, as,
by so doing, the tree is not only more firmly fixed in the ground, but
is enabled to collect food from all quarters.
Fencing should follow up at once the work of planting, as, if the young
trees are allowed to remain unprotected for any length of time, they
get injured by the farm stock. The fences may be of any desired kind,
but, as they are only required for a few years, a simple erection made
of small larch poles about 8 ft. long, driven firmly into the ground
in a circle around the tree, say, 18 in. from the stem, and made fast
to hoops of wood at top, and half-way up, will be found sufficient.
Wooden erections are, perhaps, preferable to those made of iron for
fencing hedgerow trees, as they seldom require renewing, for by the
time the fence has decayed the trees will, in most cases, be out of
harm’s way.
For shelter and shade clumps in fields probably the best trees to use
are the oak and sycamore, the value of timber produced being also a
valuable asset.
=Pruning and After-Management.=—For at least the first ten years
after planting, careful and regular pruning of hedgerow and field
timber should in all cases be attended to, bearing in mind that timely
attention in this way will alone obviate the necessity for heavy
prunings at any future stage of the tree’s growth.
Early and judicious pruning is necessary to the trees in question;
for it is well known that if branches are allowed to ramify at will,
greater injury to the underlying herbage must be committed than where
timely pruning and shortening of all straggling branches has been
attended to.
Early summer pruning, say, in the month of June, is to be recommended,
as at that time, owing to the active circulation of the sap, the wounds
heal up much more quickly than when the operation is performed at any
other season of the year. The pruning should be performed by a person
who is thoroughly conversant with the work, haphazard cutting and
hewing, by an inexperienced hand, and at any season, being injurious.
If the young trees have been well attended to in the matter of pruning
whilst in the nursery border, little or no attention will afterwards be
required—at least for a number of years.
The main object in pruning both hedgerow and field trees is to develop
a valuable main stem which is only to diverge into branches at a given
height from the ground, and to prevent the overgrowth of straggling
branches farther up, so as to maintain a symmetrical and rather
fastigiate head.
CHAPTER XI
ORNAMENTAL PLANTING
As the beauty and picturesqueness of an estate are so dependent on the
disposition of its single trees, groups and plantations, the forester
should never lose sight of the fact, even when dealing with plantations
that are mainly intended for the value of the timber produced.
In ornamental planting one of the principal things to bear in mind
is to allow sufficient space for each of the permanent standards
to develop its true and natural character. Instead, therefore, of
planting indiscriminately and in a sort of haphazard way, have a fixed
idea, and only plant on a regular and well-matured plan. Should the
individual standards be considered stiff or unsightly for the first
few years, a good plan is to fill up the spaces between them with
small-growing trees and shrubs, these being removed subsequently as
necessity demands, but always before damage to the permanent specimens
has been brought about by too close contact. The habit of the tree or
shrub, and the size to which it will ultimately attain are points that
should never be lost sight of in ornamental planting. Far too often
the mistake is made of planting specimen trees too near roads and
buildings, or, quite as bad, too close to each other. This is a most
unfortunate mistake, as it sooner or later necessitates the sacrifice
of specimens when their full beauty is probably developed, or when they
can least be spared.
In the case of both hard-wooded and coniferous, the latter in
particular, the trees are planted when young and small, and ample
room is supposed to be given to them; but, as they grow up and near
perfect development, the spread of branches soon points out that a
great mistake has been made in the space of ground allotted, and that
the ultimate size to which the particular specimen would attain had
never, at the time of planting, been duly considered. There is little
left then to be done but either to put up with crowded and ill-formed
specimens, or to attempt their removal to more suitable quarters. The
latter, in the case of trees that have been left undisturbed for many
years, and when tap and side roots have been sent down to a great
depth for safe anchorage, is quite out of the question, the only
remaining way out of the evil being to sacrifice the specimen by having
it stubbed out and removed. In any case, in the event of one tree
encroaching too closely on another, no time should be lost in deciding
which is to be removed, for, if they crowd into and interfere with each
other, the branches on that side will get thin and die off, and the
tree will thus lose the uniformity of appearance on which its whole
beauty depends. Should crowding of specimen trees be permitted for even
a few years, partial disfiguration of the trees will have been brought
about, and it will take years of careful management to restore them to
their original beauty.
In order to plant with any degree of certainty as to future results,
it is absolutely necessary to become first of all well acquainted with
the nature and habit of every tree planted, as also the properties and
peculiarities of the various soils, and aspect and position of the
ground to be planted.
Probably no other branch of forestry requires sound judgment and
correct ideas to such an extent as the laying out of parks and grounds,
or, in other words, landscape and ornamental planting—and this
knowledge can only be attained by perseverance, investigation, and
study.
In selecting sites for the various trees, it will be well to bear in
mind that certain species are better suited than others for planting
in exposed places, for using in particular soils, and for inserting in
either dry or damp ground.
By the lake or pond side the =Deciduous Cypress= (_Taxodium
distichum_), the =Bhoton Pine= (_Pinus excelsa_), the beautiful
cut-leaved =Imperial Alder= (_Alnus glutinosa imperialis_), the
=Golden= and =Purple Willows= may all be planted with the best chances
of success; whereas none of these would thrive well on dry or sandy
soils. Should chalk or calcareous soil crop up, we have good subjects
in the =Fern-leaved Beech= (_Fagus sylvatica asplenifolia_), the
=Cephalonian= and =Spanish Silver Firs= (_Abies cephalonica_ and _A.
Pinsapo_) and many of the =Pyrus= family; while, where only a small
quantity of loam overlies the gravel, the =Scotch= and =Cluster Pines=
(_Pinus sylvestris_ and _P. Pinaster_), the pretty and far from common
=Manna Ash= (_Fraxinus Ornus_), and many others may be successfully
planted. In good, rich soil, and where the position is fairly
sheltered, there are no end of ornamental trees, both hard-wooded
and coniferous, that may be planted. Some of the =Magnolias=, but
particularly _Magnolia stellata_, _M. acuminata_, and _M. Umbrella_
should find a place, while the =Juneberry= (_Amelanchier canadensis_),
the =Cornelian Cherry= (_Cornus Mas_), and various =Thorns= should
not be neglected. In exposed places plant clumps of the =Corsican=
and =Austrian Pines= (_Pinus laricio_ and _P. austriaca_), following
up with the hardy =Spruces= and =Cypresses=. Such dainty conifers as
the =Japanese Cryptomeria= (_C. japonica_), the =Elegant Cryptomeria=
(_C. elegans_), =Fitzroya patagonica=, =Prince Albert’s Fir= (_Tsuga
Mertensiana_,) and =Umbrella Pine= (_Sciadopitys verticillata_) must
have cosy corners and good soil to show their beauty to perfection.
=Pitting and Planting.=—The pits for the reception of ornamental trees
should be well formed: that is to say, should be made of sufficiently
large size for the specimens to be planted—indeed, it is always
preferable to dig out pits of a greater size than are required, thus
allowing of a quantity of broken-up soil being placed beneath and
around the roots. In any case, have the bottom and side of each pit
thoroughly broken up, and should the soil be found to be of inferior
quality, it is best to substitute that of a more desirable kind such
as is known to be suitable for the wants of the particular specimen.
In removing large specimen trees great care should be exercised—first,
that the roots are uninjured, or if at all, in a very small degree;
second, that a good ball of earth is attached; and, third, that
replanting is delayed as short a time as possible. Have the pit, for
the reception of the tree, dug out and prepared before the specimen is
lifted. Lift carefully by undermining the roots, and digging out a deep
trench at a reasonable distance from the stems, the distance from the
stem to be regulated by the root spread, size of the specimen, etc. In
order to avoid falling apart, the ball of earth should be bound with a
strong mat or tarpaulin, the ends being made fast around the stem.
A stout low-wheeled truck has been found a most convenient appliance
for removing the specimen; but in the case of large and heavy trees the
common timber wheels, or janker, may be found of great service. The
truck to which we refer should be specially made, and should be of the
following dimensions: length, 5 ft.; width, 3 ft.; on wheels 1 ft. 3
in. in diameter, these being placed so as to be below the level of the
body, thus avoiding contact with the load when that is either longer
or broader than the specified dimensions. The framework should be of
stout oak, and the bottom 3 in. thick boarding. The timber wheels, or
janker, being an adjunct of forest appliances, is always at hand, and
does away with the necessity of procuring any of the elaborate and
costly carriages usually recommended for transplanting large trees and
shrubs. The tree being placed in the pit opened for its reception, the
roots should be spread out and the soil replaced and trampled firmly,
and afterwards well watered.
=Staking the Trees.=—Next to careful planting and watering a matter of
the most vital importance—but one that, unfortunately, is too often
lost sight of—is the efficient staking or otherwise securing of large
transplanted trees. The great strain and consequent damage to the roots
of large transplants when allowed to rock about with every gust of wind
is not only highly injurious, but, viewing the matter from a point of
neatness, few things in forestry have a more unsightly or neglected
appearance than trees almost blown over by the wind. Various are the
methods usually adopted in staking and tying newly-transplanted trees.
As no hard and fast lines can be laid down, as a rule, the size of
the trees and the exposure of the positions in which they are planted
must determine the method of procedure to be adopted. It may be that
when growing in a low-lying, sheltered valley, trees of even 8 or 10
ft. in height may be perfectly safe without stake or tie of any kind,
whereas others of similar or even smaller size, growing in an open
position and exposed to the prevailing winds of the district, will
require a mooring of the most secure description, and adjusted in the
most efficient manner. For trees and shrubs up to 6 ft. in height, a
strong, sharp-pointed stake should be driven firmly into the ground,
within about 9 in. of the main stem, and on the most exposed side. The
stake should be fully 7 ft. long, and driven, not perpendicularly, but
with the head slightly inclined from the tree, and in the direction
from which the prevailing winds usually blow. A strong ligature of some
kind, such as tarred rope or thick matting, is then placed round the
stem of the tree requiring support, at about 4 ft. from the ground, and
made fast to the stake at a similar height.
By crossing the tie between the tree and stake, a more efficient job
results, as there is then less room for the tree to work in when
rocking with the wind. It will thus be seen that the nearer to the
stem of the tree the stake is placed, the greater will be the power of
resistance.
When the trees and shrubs are from 8 ft. in height and upwards, but
especially in the case of evergreen species, stronger moorings than
those just described will have to be employed, and the following plan
we have found suitable for almost any emergency. A strong band of
leather, or several strands of tarred rope, are placed loosely around
the stem of the tree to be staked, and at, say, three-quarters of its
height. Three wires—ordinary fencing wire does well—are then joined to
this collar, two on the most exposed side and one on the other, and
made fast to stout stakes driven firmly into the ground, at a distance
from the main stem proportionate to the tree’s height. In the case of
very large trees, or those that have been reinstated from a fallen
position, double wires are used in a manner similar to that just
described, the collar, however, being unusually strong. The advantages
of double wires are extra strength, and the fact that they admit of
being twisted at any time to the tightness required.
The above may be considered the two principal ways of staking large
transplants, but occasionally cases will crop up in which it may be
necessary to resort to other methods, but such are peculiar cases, and
must be dealt with in a peculiar manner.
CUT-LEAVED, WEEPING AND FASTIGIATE TREES
These have their own place in landscape gardening, and when placed
in the hands of a skilful planter are capable of producing the most
beautiful and pleasing effects. The majority are graceful in outline,
distinct and impressive in appearance; in fact, possess all those
qualities which render them specially valuable for the embellishment
of park or garden. Great care is, however, necessary in planting these
trees, for if not used with the greatest discretion, the good effects
they are so capable of producing in the hands of a trained planter are
destroyed.
=Weeping Trees.=—Both picturesque and beautiful is a well-developed
specimen of the Weeping Beech, and particularly so when associated with
trees of a light and airy appearance, for the general character of the
tree is somewhat massive and lumpy. Being of large growth, the Weeping
Beech wants plenty of room for development. There is also a desirable
weeping form of the purple Beech.
The Kilmarnock Weeping Willow (_Salix caprea pendula_) is one of the
most popular and widely cultivated of weeping trees. It originated
near Ayr, in Scotland, and was so named to distinguish it from two
other well-known varieties, the common Weeping Willow and the American
Weeping Willow—two desirable forms for waterside planting. In the
American Fountain Willow we have another excellent weeping tree, while
the ringed-leaved Willow (_S. Babylonica annularis_ or _crispa_) is one
of the most curious and picturesque of the whole group.
Amongst the Birches are at least two desirable weeping forms in the
cut-leaved (_Betula pendula Youngi_), Young’s weeping Birch, and the
weeping white Birch (_B. alba pendula_), both of which are admirably
adapted for lawns, even where space is restricted. The Birch will
thrive on poor, light soil, and is, therefore, peculiarly suitable for
planting in gravelly or rocky formations.
The distinct habit of the Weeping Mountain Ash, or Rowan tree, has made
it a favourite in the embellishment of small grounds, and the wealth
of conspicuous fruit produces a telling effect, especially if the tree
is backed up by darker foliaged trees or shrubs. There are other forms
of Pyrus well worthy of attention, such as the pendulous Siberian
Crab (_P. prunifolia pendula_) and _Salicifolia pendula_, the latter
in particular being a distinct and graceful small-growing tree. The
Weeping Mulberry (_Morus alba pendula_) is occasionally seen in good
form when it is a desirable acquisition, so is the Weeping Laburnum
(_L. vulgare pendulum_) and the curious and scarce _Gleditschia
triacanthos excelsa pendula_. In the silver-leaved Weeping Holly we
have one of the best of evergreens for confined situations; and _Cornus
florida pendula_ is a strikingly beautiful tree in which the weeping
habit is decidedly pronounced.
Among Weeping Elms some varieties are most pronounced, but there are
several others all equally worthy of culture. Of the English Elm,
probably the best is _Ulmus campestris Petersii pendula_, while of the
Mountain or Scotch, that known as _U. montana pendula_ is the most
desirable. Weeping thorns are by no means common, but they are probably
the most natural and graceful of all drooping trees of modern growth.
In the flower garden at Regent’s Park is growing a beautiful specimen
of this tree.
Perhaps the most common of weeping trees is the Weeping Ash (_Fraxinus
excelsior pendula_), and its strong, vigorous growth causes it to be
employed where others would not succeed. Even in smoky localities it is
quite at home, as many fine old trees throughout London clearly prove
that the deleterious effects of an impure atmosphere have but little
effect on its hardy constitution. It is one of the best of weeping
trees for forming an arbour, and as a distinctly ornamental specimen
for the park or large lawn it has few equals.
Amongst coniferous trees we have several distinct and beautiful
pendulous trees or shrubs, such as _Abies excelsa inverta_ and the
well-known and much appreciated _A. Smithian_ or _morinda_. The
pendulous Hemlock spruce (_A. Canadensis pendula_) is one of the
prettiest and most natural in appearance of all weeping trees.
There are several distinct and beautiful forms of the Cypress,
particularly _C. Lawsoniana gracilis pendula_ and _C. Lawsoniana alba
pendula_. The Weeping Chinese Juniper (_Juniperus Chinensis pendula_)
and _Virginiana pendula_ are well worthy of attention where this
particular class of trees or shrubs is in request. Than the weeping
form of the common Larch, perhaps no tree is more beautiful, the
feathery pea-green foliage being distinct from that of every other tree.
=Cut-leaved Trees.=—Of the Maples we have several cut-leaved forms,
such as the beautiful _Acer palmatum laciniatum_ and _dissectum_, while
of the Norway Maple, the variety known as _Platanoides dissectum_ is
particularly valuable on account of the freely divided and beautifully
coloured leaves.
In the cut-leaved Birch (_Betula alba laciniatum pendula_), we have at
once one of the most graceful and distinct of hardy trees. Not only
are the leaves cut up and divided, but the weeping sprays of foliage,
owing to the fine, whipcord-like branchlets, produce a most beautiful
and graceful effect. In addition, this Birch is a tree of neat, clean
growth, and will succeed in a satisfactory way even on poor gravelly
soils and upland situations.
Amongst the Beam trees (_Pyrus_) we find several good cut-leaved
forms, such as _pinnatifida_ and _salicifolia_, both highly desirable
medium-sized trees and valuable for woodland margins or steep,
undulating grounds. Numerous forms of the Oak have appeared with
incised leaves, such as _Quercus dentata_ and the fern-leaved variety
of the Turkey Oak (_Quercus Cerris asplenifolia_), a decidedly
beautiful and worthy form. Of the English Oak (_Q. Robur_) we have
at least two good cut-leaved forms in _Pedunculata asplenifolia_ and
_pectinata_. There are other varieties of the Oak in which the foliage
differs considerably from that of the species in being much more freely
divided.
_Rhus glabra laciniata_ has become widely known of late years on
account of its neatly divided foliage and as being a good town shrub.
The leaves are of a delicate pea-green and the flowers inconspicuous
and succeeded by feathery lawns.
The common Alder has at least two forms that are much sought after for
dampish ground by the pond or lake side, in _Alnus glutinosa laciniata_
and its well-marked and distinct variety _imperialis_. Both attain to a
goodly size, and when suitably placed where the abundant, rich green,
deeply divided leaves can be readily seen, are distinctly valuable for
contrast and waterside effect.
The incised or cut-leaved Hornbeam (_Carpinus Betulus incisa_) is
rarely seen, but it is of so distinct a type that its inclusion in this
list is considered desirable. In this case the almost entire beech-like
leaf is finely divided and the whole tree presents a comparatively
light and airy appearance. Of the common Hawthorn there is a specially
elegant cut-leaved form in that named _laciniata_, but its distinctive
characteristics are best revealed when planted in conjunction with the
species.
Several of the Vine family are rendered highly ornamental for covering
walls and pergolas by reason of their beautifully coloured and divided
leaves. _Vitis heterophylla dissecta_ is one of the best in this way,
but others of the less-incised forms are well worthy of attention. _V.
vinifera purpurea_ has much to recommend it as an ornamental-leaved
variety, and is specially suitable for covering mounds of earth, stones
or tree stumps.
We must not omit to include the cut or fern-leaved variety of the
Lime (_Tilia platyphillos laciniata_), which for neat habit of growth
and distinct character from the species merits special attention. The
cut-leaved Japan Maples are exceedingly beautiful, but their slow
growth and difficult propagation will always be against extensive
planting, and render them rare and expensive. Other interesting
cut-leaved trees are the willow-leaved Ash, laurel-leaved Willow,
scarlet Oak, Maidenhair tree, and that most beautiful of all, the
fern-leaved form of the golden Elder.
Though somewhat stiff of outline the cut-leaved Horse Chestnut
(_Æsculus_), in the form known as laciniatum, is not to be despised,
and affords a striking contrast to the species.
The fern-leaved Beech (_Fagus sylvatica asplenifolia_) is probably the
most commonly distributed of cut-leaved trees, and rightly so, for it
is certainly one of the most beautiful and distinct of the type. _F.
sylvatica quercifolia_, the Oak-leaved, is also worthy of attention,
but cannot compare with the former in point of beauty. Even of the
common Walnut (_Juglans Regia_) there is a cut-leaved variety, which
is distinct and worthy of culture as an ornamental tree. It is named
_laciniata_ and is fairly common.
Of the numerous varieties of the Sweet or Spanish Chestnut, the most
desirable is that which bears the rather cumbrous name of _Castanea
vesca heterophylla dissecta_. It is one of the most beautiful of hardy
trees, in which the long, narrow leaves of the upper parts of the
branches droop in a graceful manner and render it so much sought after
in ornamental gardening.
=Fastigiate Trees.=—The Lombardy Poplar (_Populus fastigiata_) is
at once one of the most conspicuous and picturesque of tapering
trees. Though it can hardly be described as a beautiful tree, yet
for landscape effect the tall, spiry, column-like appearance renders
the Lombardy Poplar of particular value for certain well-chosen
positions in our parks and grounds. In the neighbourhood of a town or
country village it produces an effect almost akin to architectural
embellishment, while in flat or low-lying districts, and particularly
near water, it is most at home and probably looks best. It also
associates kindly with old ruins and has a pleasing effect when rising
out of pointed-headed Cypresses or Yews, but in all cases it is a
tree that should be used sparingly and with extreme caution. Forming
avenues or lines of the tree is not good taste, while planting single
specimens in open situations should be avoided.
Of the Poplars there are several upright-growing varieties in addition
to the Lombardy, such as the beautiful _P. alba Bolleana_, a desirable
fast-growing tree with a character of its own.
The Oak, too, has its decidedly upright form in _Quercus pedunculata
fastigiata_, which in old parks is a fairly common tree. A decidedly
beautiful small-growing tree is the upright form of the dwarf Acacia
(_Robinia Pseudo-acacia inermis fastigiata_) which for confined spaces
and wealth of delightful pea-green foliage is a valuable small-growing
variety.
The Elms are not wanting in upright-growing forms, both the English
and Scotch being represented, the former in _Dampieri aurea_, and
the latter in _Montana fastigiata_. A beautiful and distinct tree of
upright habit will be found in the fastigiate variety of the Tulip tree
(_Liriodendron tulipifera fastigiata_).
_Cupressus sempervirens_, in many parts of England, but particularly
by the coast, forms a beautiful tapering evergreen tree with the
darkest-green foliage. For clump planting it is particularly desirable,
but it is not quite hardy in some parts of the country. Another
coniferous tree of naturally erect growth is the red or Virginian Cedar
(_Juniperus Virginiana_), which in sheltered sites is a most desirable
member of the family. Two other Junipers are of decidedly strict
growth, _J. drupacea_ and _J. thurifera_.
The Irish Juniper (_Juniperus hibernica_) originated in Ireland, most
probably as a chance seedling. It is a most desirable shrub, and on
account of its singular habit of growing in a compact, slender and
graceful column, has proved itself a most valuable evergreen for
almost any position, but particularly where geometrical gardening is
carried out. The silvery glaucous hue of the thickly produced foliage
is extremely beautiful. The nearly allied but much smaller growing _J.
hibernica compressa_ forms a compact slender pyramid of bright-tinted
foliage and is an excellent plant for rockwork or small gardens.
Amongst the Cypresses are several upright-growing forms, probably the
best, and certainly the most widely distributed, being Lawson’s erect
Cypress (_Cupressus Lawsoniana erecta viridis_), of dense, erect habit
and with vivid green foliage. _Cupressus macrocorpa lutea_, raised by
Messrs. Dicksons, of Chester, has a decidedly neat and upright habit
of growth, while the distinct golden tint of the foliage renders it a
desirable acquisition for ornamental planting.
Than the Irish Yew (_Taxus baccata fastigiata_) with its dark sombre
foliage and neat columnar outline, few evergreens are more conspicuous
and effective. This favourite and far-distributed variety originated at
Florence Court, in Ireland, a century and a quarter ago.
_Cupressus macrocarpa fastigiata_ is a well-marked variety in
which the branches closely press to the main stem. The foliage is
of the brightest green, and the long whip-cord-like shoots with
the conspicuous reddish back, impart a peculiar grace to healthy
specimens. _C. torulosa_, for planting where space is confined, is
a decided acquisition, the easy though columnar habit of growth,
slender branchlets and bright glaucous foliage being all points of
recommendation.
The upright form of the Birch (_Betula alba fastigiata_) has a
peculiarity of habit that, associated with the slender weeping shoots,
is highly ornamental; while _Cornus stricta_ and the upright variety of
our common Hawthorn have both points of recommendation.
CHAPTER XII
TREES BEST ADAPTED FOR VARIOUS SOILS
There is, perhaps, no soil so bad and barren that it may not be
rendered either profitable or ornamental by judicious planting; but,
as might be expected, there is often a great want of knowledge as to
the proper kind of trees to be chosen to suit a particular soil. In
looking over a large extent of woodland one will often be struck with
the great disproportion in size of the individual trees of a species;
but it will generally be noticed that where the largest and healthiest
occur the tree is usually growing upon its own soil, and is found to
be flourishing at the expense of all around it. Thus the finest oaks
will be found where the soil is deep and loamy, resting on clay; beech,
and the Austrian pine (_Pinus austriaca_) upon a calcareous gravel,
resting on a bed of chalk; ash and elm on a dampish, loamy gravel;
birch in a light, black loam, with a gravelly substratum; Spanish
chestnut, in a good loamy or gravelly soil, not too damp; the Scotch
and Corsican pines (_P. sylvestris_ and _P. laricio_) at fairly high
altitudes, and in gravelly, well-drained soils; and the Cluster and
Aleppo pines (_P. Pinaster_ and _P. halepensis_), in almost pure sand
on the sea-coast. Some trees grow rapidly for a few years in almost
any soil, but where the soil is unsuitable they generally show signs
of distress after a time, make little or no progress, and ultimately
become stunted and ill-grown. Should the soil be very unfavourable,
they die outright. Instances of this are, unfortunately, far too
common wherever one travels over the country, owing to trees of a kind
that are utterly unfitted for the particular class of soil being
planted in a haphazard kind of way, without any consideration of their
individual requirements. For all practical purposes with reference
to tree-culture, soils, generally speaking, may be divided into six
distinct classes—peaty, chalky or limey, gravelly, clayey, loamy, and
such as contain ironstone, coal, etc.
(1) =Peat.=—Few trees will succeed well on an unreclaimed peat bog,
but, where draining and soiling have been attended to at the outset,
the number that grow and produce a fair amount of valuable timber is
almost without limit among our generally cultivated species. Among
conifers that have proved themselves suitable for bog planting are the
larch, Scotch pine, and common and black spruces (_Picea excelsa_ and
_P. nigra_). The larch grows rapidly, and is less subject to disease
on peaty than any other soil—indeed, up to a few years ago, I cannot
remember having seen a trace of any of the diseases which have rendered
the life of the tree so precarious of late years in this country. In
thinning a larch plantation of fully sixty years’ growth I found the
trees felled to be perfectly healthy, and of exceptional quality, with,
on an average, 72 ft. of wood in each. The subsoil in this case was
clay, and the bog, previous to being planted, had been cut over for
fuel. The Scotch pine grows almost as freely as the larch—the average
in over fifty trees measured being about an eighth less—under similar
conditions. Natural reproduction of the Scotch pine goes on so rapidly
that it must be considered one of the very best trees for planting on
peat bog. The spruces are excellent trees for planting on reclaimed
peat bog, where they produce a fair amount of timber and afford
excellent shelter to other trees. Of hardwoods, the beech is one of the
best for bog planting, as it grows rapidly and produces a large amount
of clean timber. The alder grows luxuriously on peaty soils, and shows
no traces of disease or canker. Another excellent bog tree is the Gean
or Wild Cherry, and this may likewise be said of the holly. Ash and oak
are not generally of large size, nor are they always healthy on peat
bog, even when it has received a great amount of attention in the way
of reclaiming. Birch, lime and poplar of various kinds are all suited
for planting on well-drained bog.
Among coniferous trees, a large number are well suited for planting in
reclaimed peat bog. By way of experiment I have planted specimens of
various kinds in newly-formed plantations, and in nearly every case
the trees have grown well, particularly when partially sheltered.
_Cupressus macrocarpa_ is one of the best, and not one whit behind
it are _C. Lawsoniana_ and _C. goveniana_. _Wellingtonia gigantea_
and _Sequoia sempervirens_ have done well, while _Pinus laricio_ and
_P. austriaca_ grow freely. I find that the majority of the recently
introduced conifers do well on prepared peat bog—that is, where a
quantity of loam has been incorporated with the bog and all superfluous
moisture drained away.
(2) =Chalky Soils.=—The beech is peculiarly well suited for planting
in chalk districts, for it will grow and produce a large quantity of
excellent timber where but a few inches of loam overlie the chalk. It
is a fact that, in Southern England particularly, in order to find
where the chalk beds lie, one has only to be guided by the line traced
out by the largest and most luxuriant beeches.
The beech will grow freely enough on almost pure chalk, but it
certainly flourishes best where loam, say, from 1 ft. to 3 ft. in
depth, overlies the chalk, or is incorporated with it, as on the
Chiltern Hills.
The Norway maple (_Acer platanoides_) revels in a chalky soil, and
so does _A. colchicum rubrum_. These are both handsome, hardy,
large-growing trees, and well suited for extensive forest-planting
under certain conditions of soil. White poplar (_Populus alba_) is
an excellent tree for planting in chalky districts—indeed, it is
surprising to see to what an immense size it attains on almost pure
chalk.
Other poplars that do almost equally well on the chalk formation are
_P. monilifera_ and _P. canadensis_, both excellent, free-growing
trees. Elms, particularly the Huntingdon and the American, grow
rapidly, and attain to a large size, where but a small quantity of
loam is present in the chalk. The wych elm grows freely in chalky
districts, and this may also be said of the common and silver-leaved
lime. False acacia (_Robinia Pseud-acacia_) is an excellent tree for
chalky soils, and there attains to a greater size than in even the
richest of loams. The alder and birch also thrive with vigour on chalky
soils. Indeed, most trees which in a state of nature grow in damp or
marshy soils, are well suited for planting where chalk is the component
of the main soil, and this is explained as follows:—Chalk, although
sufficiently porous to allow water to percolate through it, has, like
all other calcareous matter, a strong attraction for water, and acts
like a sponge in holding it in considerable quantity for a very long
time. Among the conifers that are suitable for chalky soils the Spanish
fir (_Abies Pinsapo_) is one of the best. In the chalky districts of
Southern England it thrives with unusual luxuriance. The Mount Enos fir
(_Abies cephalonica_) is, likewise, well adapted for growing in chalky
districts. Of evergreen trees that succeed well on chalk the number is
well known to be limited, and it is important that two such beautiful
conifers as the Spanish and Mount Enos firs should there find their
most congenial home.
Both the Scotch and Weymouth pines (_Pinus sylvestris_ and _P.
Strobus_) are well suited for planting on chalk, and many fine examples
of both may be seen on the chalky reefs of Kent and Surrey.
The common Yew grows freely where hardly a particle of soil overlies
the chalk formation.
The Giant Arborvitæ (_Thuja gigantea_) is peculiarly suitable for
planting in chalky soils: and the Lebanon Cedar (_Cedrus Libani_) is
never found in greater perfection than when growing in the chalk with a
fair depth of loam atop.
_Wellingtonia gigantea_ also does well.
(3) =Gravelly and Sandy Soils.=—The Corsican pine is an excellent tree
for planting on gravelly soils, and some of the largest and finest
specimens in this country are growing in a disused gravel-pit, and this
may also be said of the Douglas fir (_Pseudothuga Douglasii_).
The Scotch pine is well known to be one of the best conifers for
planting in gravelly soils, where it reproduces itself in great
numbers, when the conditions of growth are at all favourable.
_Pinus Pinaster_, the cluster pine, is, perhaps, one of the most
valuable conifers for planting either in gravelly or sandy soils. The
great value of the tree in reclaiming sandy tracts, both at home and
abroad, has been so often described that further reference here is
not required. The Aleppo pine is a good companion to the Pinaster,
and grows with great freedom in a sandy or gravelly soil, within the
influence of the sea. Gravelly soil also suits the Weymouth pine, on
which it produces a fair quantity of very resinous timber. Both the
beech and oak produce a large volume of timber on poor gravelly and
sandy soils.
(4) =Clay Soils.=—The soil here referred to is genuine clay, devoid of
stones, and without a particle of sand or loam in it.
It occurred on the slopes, and for some considerable distance along the
sides of one of the park roads on an estate in England.
This is recorded simply to show what species of trees are best able to
succeed when planted in pure clay. The pits, in this case, it may be
well to mention, were dug and the soil thrown loosely up for a month
previous to planting, but no soil was added to the stiff clay. Nearly
one hundred kinds of trees and shrubs were used, but out of all these
not more than eight are doing well, the others having gradually died
out, or become so rusty and miserable looking that their removal was
compulsory. First among the trees that have succeeded is the giant
arborvitæ (_Thuja gigantea_), which seems to revel in what is generally
considered the most unkindly of soils. _Cryptomeria japonica_ has also
done well, but the trees of this kind, though bushy and well-furnished,
have grown at a comparatively slow rate.
_Cupressus macrocarpa_ also has done fairly well: the growth certainly
has not been rapid, but for all that the general appearance of the
trees is the reverse of what one might expect from the unfavourable
nature of the soil. The Indian Cedar (_Cedrus Deodara_) we have found
to be peculiarly well suited for planting in clayey soils, the bright
silvery tint that is so characteristic of this cedar when well grown
being discernible in the clay-grown specimens. _Pinus austriaca_ has,
in a few instances, done well, the foliage being ample and of the
usual dark yew-green. Amongst shrubs the double-flowered gorse (_Ulex
Europæus_, fl. pl.) has done best of any—indeed, it has grown and
increased freely, and would seem to be quite as much at home as in its
natural element—a dry, gravelly bank. These may be considered as the
trees that have succeeded best in stiff, clayey soil. Few of the pine
tribe did well, and this may also be said of the spruces, cypresses,
yews, junipers, arbutus, dogwood, cotoneaster, hollies, and others
planted.
It is, of course, far from advisable to plant trees or shrubs in such
unkindly soil without first adding other of better quality; but it is
of great value to know that there are a few trees and shrubs that will
thrive almost in defiance of the stubborn and unkindly nature of a
stiff clay soil.
(5) =Ironstone Soils.=—The particular class of soil to which I refer,
and which in several districts occurs in plenty, is on the coal and
ironstone formation, where the top soil is usually shallow, and the
subsoil consists of a loose, yellowish rag that is largely impregnated
with iron. In most places but a very small quantity of soil exists, and
that is of the poorest description, varying in depth according to the
lie of the measure. The Spanish Chestnut is one of the very best trees
for this soil, growing with freedom, and producing a fair amount of
good timber, while its appearance indicates perfect health.
Birch and beech do well, although neither of them attains to a large
size. The latter reproduces itself freely from seeds, and soon spreads
wherever a footing can be got. Sycamore grows freely, particularly
where the pan is broken up, and produces a small quantity of good
timber. Another tree that seems perfectly at home on the coal and
ironstone is the wild cherry, for there it grows to a fair size,
flowers freely, and produces excellent timber. Larch cannot be
recommended for this soil, but in places where a small quantity of
loam overlies the coal and ironstone it grows with great freedom for
a number of years, and the timber, if cut early, is of good quality.
The common spruce soon dies out, although it may grow freely enough for
a number of years after being planted, and wear a healthy appearance.
Oak and ash do fairly well, but they rarely attain to a large size or
produce first-class timber. Rhododendrons almost revel in this soil,
and some of the largest and healthiest are growing with their roots in
close contact with the coal and ironstone.
=Shrubs for Hot and Dry Soils.=—The Bladder Senna (_Colutea
arborescens_) is one of the most useful of shrubs for planting in
poor, hot, dry soils, and not only will it succeed and flower well in
these, but it is equally valuable for using where the air is chemically
impure, and for that reason has few equals for the town or city
shrubbery. _C. cruenta_ is also valuable in a similar way. The Sea
Purslane (_Atriplex halimus_) is another valuable shrub for planting
in hot and dry situations as is _Caragana arborescens_, the native
Barberry (_Berberis vulgaris_), many forms of Genista and Cytisus,
_Spartium junceum_, and the double flowering Gorse. Another excellent
shrub is the Box Thorn or Tea Tree (_Lycium Europæum_) which is
useful for covering an arid hot bank, several species of Cotoneaster,
particularly _C. horizontalis_ and _C. microphylla_, and the neat
and curious _Muchlenbeckia complexa_. Helianthemums also do well, so
does the Venetian Sumach (_Rhus cotinus_), and several varieties of
bramble, but especially the double pink flowering form. The Rest Harrow
(_Ononis arvensis_), a native shrubby plant of great floral beauty,
also does well; while the little known _Celastris articulatus_ should
not be neglected in hot and dry situations. Other good shrubs for hot
dry banks are _Potentilla fruticosa_, the Tamarisk and _Juniperus
tamariscifolia_.
=Concluding Remarks.=—In conclusion, it may be pointed out that
it is only by a careful selection of soil that we may expect tree
planting to be successful, and I have no hesitation in saying that
many failures can be clearly traced to errors of judgment in the
selection of trees for planting on particular soils. The subject
is a wide and complicated one, and it must be admitted that very
perplexing diversities occur with the same kinds of trees on what, to
all appearance, is the same class of soil. There are, of course, other
considerations beyond the soil itself which must be taken into account,
such as aspect, elevation, and whether the ground is inland or on the
coast.
With reference to some of the newer conifers it must be admitted that
soil and situation have a wonderful influence on their successful
culture, and this applies in particular to such kinds as are not
perfectly hardy and liable to injury by unseasonable frost. The too
common practice of selecting warm and sheltered spots for such is, in
the main, to be condemned.
It may be said that _Abies cephalonica_ and _A. Pinsapo_ are not worth
growing, and in many places they are not, but when planted on limestone
or chalk they are highly ornamental.
The same holds good in the case of _Tsuga Mertensiana_, _Picea
Sitchensis_, and _P. excelsa_, which are rarely seen in good form
except on soil of a peaty description.
Every one at all interested in trees and shrubs knows that there are
certain kinds which in a state of Nature are only found growing in a
peaty soil, mixed it may be more or less with sand, and any attempt
to cultivate them in other soils is productive of very unsatisfactory
results.
Who would ever think of planting the so-called American or peat plants,
Cape Heaths, etc., amongst gravel or chalk, or Rhododendrons where lime
is present in the soil? And these facts show us that there is something
in the composition of certain soils only suitable for the requirements
of a certain class of plants.
Another curious fact is this, that when growing on certain soils the
timber of one species of tree is found to be far more durable than in
others.
Deep loamy soil and soft peat produce timber that is usually of a
second-rate description, being deficient in firmness.
By studying the geological strata of a district much useful information
may be learnt regarding the trees best suited for planting.
The following alphabetical table will serve to show at a glance the
trees that have been found best suited for planting in the class of
soil under which they are enumerated:—
RECLAIMED PEAT BOG.
_Hardwoods._
Alnus glutinosa Populus alba
—— —— imperialis —— balsamifera
—— —— laciniata —— canadensis
Betula alba Quercus Robur, and vars.
Cerasus Padus Salix fragilis
—— vulgaris Tilia europeæ
Fagus sylvatica Ulmus alata
—— —— purpurea —— montana
_Conifers._
Abies concolor Larix Kæmpferi
—— bracteata Pinus austriaca
—— nobilis —— excelsa
—— Nordmanniana —— laricio
Cedrus Deodara —— sylvestris
Cryptomeria japonica Retinospora ericoides
Cupressus Goveniana —— plumosa
—— Lawsoniana —— —— aurea
—— macrocarpa Taxus baccata
Juniperus chinensis Thuja gigantea
—— recurva —— occidentalis
—— Sabina Thujopsis borealis
Larix europeæ Wellingtonia gigantea
CHALKY OR CALCAREOUS.
_Hardwoods._
Acer colchicum rubrum Cerasus Padus
—— dasycarpum Cratægus (nearly all)
—— Negundo Cytisus Laburnum
—— platanoides Fagus sylvatica
—— Pseudo-platanus —— —— purpurea
Æsculus Hippocastanum Fraxinus excelsior
—— rubicunda —— Ornus
Alnus glutinosa, and vars. Gleditschia sinensis
Amelanchier Botryapium —— triacanthos
Amygdalus communis Koelreuteria paniculata
Betula alba Populus alba
Castanea vesca —— balsamifera
Catalpa bignonioides —— canadensis
Populus monilifera Quercus Turneri
—— tremula Robinia Pseud-acacia, and vars.
Pyrus Aria Salix alba
—— Aucuparia Tilia argentea
—— Malus floribunda —— europeæ
—— spectabilis Ulmus alata
Quercus Ilex —— glabra
—— Mirebecki —— montana
—— rubra Virgilia lutea
_Conifers._
Abies Amabilis Pinus austriaca
—— magnifica —— Cembra
—— nobilis —— excelsa
—— Nordmanniana —— laricio
—— Pinsapo —— Pinaster
—— Webbiana —— Strobus
Cedrus atlantica —— sylvestris
—— Deodara —— tuberculata
—— Libani Retinospora ericoides
Cupressus Lawsoniana —— filicoides
—— macrocarpa —— plumosa
Juniperus chinensis —— —— aurea
—— communis Salisburia adiantifolia
—— Sabina Taxus baccata, and vars.
—— —— tamariscifolia Thuja gigantea
Larix europeæ —— Lobbii
—— Kæmpferi —— occidentalis
—— leptolepis —— Warreana
Picea excelsa Thujopsis borealis
GRAVELLY AND SANDY.
_Hardwoods._
Alianthus glandulosa Morus nigra
Alnus cordata Platanus occidentalis
Betula alba Populus Bolleana
Carpinus betulus Quercus Robur, and vars.
Fagus sylvatica —— suber
—— —— purpurea Robinia Pseud-acacia
Fraxinus Ornus Sambucus nigra
Gleditschia horrida Tilia europeæ
Ilex, many vars. Ulmus alata
Juglans cinerea —— campestris
—— nigra —— montana
Magnolia acuminata Virgilia lutea
_Conifers._
Juniperus communis Pinus Pinaster
—— Sabina —— pumilio
Pinus austriaca —— sylvestris
—— halepensis Taxus baccata
—— laricio Thuja gigantea
CLAY.
Carpinus betulus Quercus Ilex
Castanea vesca —— pannonica
Cryptomeria elegans —— Robur
—— japonica Thuja gigantea
Gleditschia triacanthos —— Lobbii
IRONSTONE AND COAL.
Acer Pseudo-platanus Larix europeæ
Betula alba —— —— pendula
Castanea vesca Pinus Cembra
Cerasus Padus —— Montana
Cupressus Lawsoniana Quercus Robur
Fraxinus excelsior Thuja gigantea
Juniperus communis Ulmus montana
CHAPTER XIII
TRANSPLANTING LARGE TREES
Where immediate effect is required, the transplanting of large trees
and shrubs will be an operation of considerable importance, and though
it is fraught with both trouble and expense, the results obtained have
led to an increased adoption of the system during recent years.
There is hardly a limit to the size or weight of the tree to be removed
when the operator is provided with suitable appliances, and success has
crowned the effort of several recent operations of this nature in our
Royal and other parks. Of late years several appliances for removing
large and weighty trees and shrubs have been placed on the market;
amongst these one of the best is certainly that made and patented by
Messrs. Faulkners Ltd. Its principal recommendations are simplicity
of structure, the ease with which it may be worked, and lightness,
combined with such strength that even the weightiest tree can be
removed. But not only is this tree-lifter valuable where transplanting
is being engaged in, for in removing large tree roots, logs of timber,
blocks of stone, and heavy materials generally, it has been found most
useful.
The apparatus is made somewhat in the form of a four-wheeled lorry,
having a steel frame only. The frame at the back is made movable to
admit of the apparatus being placed so that the tree to be moved stands
in the centre of the machine. Two stout planks with guide rails are
laid across the trench, and the machine is backed on to these. The
machine is constructed with four iron rollers, lying along over the
side frame and parallel with the frame. Around the rollers a chain is
wound, the loose end being fastened to the planking which has been
placed under the ball of earth containing the roots of the tree.
The rollers are worked with a specially made screw-gear, which is
self-sustaining, and can be moved to draw up or lower at will.
[Illustration: FAULKNER’S TRANSPLANTING MACHINE.]
The illustration given clearly shows the apparatus with the tree being
lifted for transportation. Barron’s transplanting machine is also well
known, and with this much valuable work in the removal of large and
heavy trees and shrubs has been accomplished.
CHAPTER XIV
THINNING PLANTATIONS
In the successful rearing of timber trees for profit there is, perhaps,
no other branch of more importance than a good knowledge of the art of
thinning, and, at the same time, one on which so great a diversity of
opinion exists.
Thinning plantations, be they old or young, must always be subject to
great modification, according to the nature of the trees and soil, or
ultimate design of the plantation being operated upon, and is a matter
requiring great tact, forethought, and discrimination, and this can
only be acquired by long experience and by those having a good insight
into the peculiarities and properties of our forest trees.
The same rule as regards thinning will not apply to, say, fir,
hardwood, and mixed plantations; and far less will it hold good in the
case of an ornamental and a profitable wood. No universal rule can,
however, be laid down for thinning, but general principles can be given
that will be sufficient for the guidance of those who have to undertake
such work.
In thinning any plantation two important points are to be borne in
mind—first, cut away all diseased, dead and dying trees; second,
study the relationship of trees and soil, and act accordingly. To be
more explicit, we might say that in the first case, the removal of
all dead and dying trees is a necessity, and that being done, one can
proceed with the disposal of the standards to be left. In the second
case, by suiting the trees to the soil, at least as far as possible,
great benefit results, and an instance of this that came under our
own observation lately will be given as an example. A plantation
130 acres in extent was composed of oak, larch and Spanish chestnut,
placed at regular distances apart throughout the whole extent of the
wood. Now, the soil was gravelly for a considerable distance down, and,
consequently, fairly well suited for the chestnut, but just the reverse
for the larch, which, on such a soil, generally becomes “pumped,” or
rotten at the core. In thinning this particular plantation, it would
have been very unwise to cut away the chestnut and the oak and leave
the larch, and this had happened to some extent before the proper
system of management and adaptability of soil to tree was thought
of. Larch may look healthy enough, and show but small indications of
disease, even when growing on gravel up to twenty or thirty years of
age, so that it is with difficulty that the inexperienced become aware
of the pending doom that usually awaits this tree when planted on
such a soil. This example is merely given to point out how carefully
thinning should be gone about, and that in all cases it is a wise
policy to study soil in relation to the future crop of timber before an
axe is laid to the tree.
At the outset of these remarks on thinning plantations it should be
distinctly borne in mind that there are two chief objects for which
trees may be grown, each requiring a special mode of management, in
order that the best results may be obtained.
The first is their management in a purely economical sense or with a
view to profit; the second, their management with a view to ornament.
There is also a third object that is well worthy of consideration,
and that is the growing of timber in one and the same wood, both for
ornament and utility combined, and this is very frequently the case
with home woodlands that are visible from roads and drives, with strips
bounding parks or pleasure-grounds, and on small properties.
To produce ornamental trees of natural appearance is by no means
difficult, as by allowing the individual specimens ample room for
branch development, the desired effect is gradually brought about. Far
greater difficulty, however, attends the production of the greatest
quantity of the most valuable trees on a given space of ground. Here
many questions of the greatest moment, on which difference of opinion
exists, crop up: such as at what age thinning should be commenced, to
what extent should it be engaged in, what time should elapse between
each thinning, and which trees should be removed.
[Illustration: FELLING TOOLS.]
Any one at all interested in the management of our woods and
plantations must have noticed that trees having an abundance of room
and light on all sides make comparatively short and thick trunks that
are well furnished with branches; whereas such as are grown up in a
circumscribed space and amongst others are tall and straight, with
clean, well-formed stems destitute of branches for the greater part
of their height. All species, or nearly all, are governed by the same
laws, that is to say, those that have the least room laterally within
certain prescribed limits, which will be described hereafter, produce
the tallest, cleanest and straightest trunks, and vice versa.
The influence of light has not, in this country at least, been
sufficiently taken into account in the rearing of timber, but it has
everything to do in directing the growth of trees, and should be
reckoned as a most important factor by the forester. Thus, if it be
allowed in excess, as when the trees stand far apart, the growth of
lateral shoots and large branches will be greatly induced, the result
being short and thick boles, that are rough and knotty, and ill-adapted
for constructive purposes. On the other hand, by keeping the trees
thick on the ground, light is, to a greater or less extent, excluded,
and the trees grow tall, straight and branchless for the greater part
of their height, and are of the greatest economic value. But here
another and very important question crops up. To what extent in a wood,
managed solely for the value of the timber it produces, will it be
profitable to thin? In dealing with this, two distinct bearings should
be kept in mind—the first, that too small a quantity of branches and
consequently of leaves, must, to a greater or less extent, check the
growth of the trees, and so diminish the production of timber; and,
second, that by having too large a quantity, the value of the timber
is greatly reduced in consequence, and the number of trees to the acre
much diminished as well.
There is, therefore, a medium between these two, by adopting which,
the greatest quantity of the most valuable timber will be produced;
although, at the same time, it is astonishing, when looked at from
a physiological point of view, what a small quantity of foliage is
required to keep a plantation tree in a healthy, growing condition,
and to produce a trunk of useful dimensions. This may, however, be
explained by the fact that the almost entire absence of large limbs and
branches, which in some cases would amount to one-fifth the total bulk
of the tree, renders the amount of sap, and consequently of leaves,
required proportionately less, the nutriment being mainly elaborated in
the building of the trunk.
Independent altogether of the forests of northern Europe, Canada,
etc., which have grown up naturally, examples might be given in our
own country—the native Fir forests in the Highlands of Scotland, the
valuable Beech woods on the Chiltern Hills, and a few Larch plantations
in Yorkshire and Bedfordshire—where trees averaging 70 ft. in height,
growing at from 4 to 6 yards apart, and with only a tuft of foliage
atop, may be seen. It is only, however, by long and careful study and
attention to different trees at different stages of their growth that
any idea can be formed of the amount of branches and foliage required
for preparing the sap that will be necessary for the profitable yearly
increase of the trunk until maturity is arrived at.
The questions now to be dealt with in growing timber for purely
economical purposes are: (1) At what age should thinning be commenced?
(2) To what extent should it be engaged in? (3) What time should elapse
between each thinning? And (4) Which trees should be removed?
At the outset, it may be well to mention, that in so far as any of
the above questions are concerned, no hard and fast line can be laid
down as to the universal management of plantations, each tract of
wood, and even different parts of the same wood, according to the
particular species of tree, quality of soil, altitude, and exposure,
being dealt with on its own peculiar footing. Many serious mistakes
have been committed, and irreparable damage done, by treating every
plantation alike and according to the rule-of-thumb method. Upon the
manner in which thinning is performed, much of the ultimate success
of a plantation will depend, and it is a matter requiring great tact,
forethought, and discrimination, which can only be acquired by long
experience, and an intimate knowledge of trees and their surroundings.
The quality as well as quantity of timber produced should be carefully
considered in the management of every plantation. In dealing with the
following questions regarding thinning, it may be well to state that
the average plantation will alone form the basis of remarks.
=1. At what age should thinning be commenced?=—The necessity of
thinning, few practical arboriculturists will care to deny, and that
whether the plantation be composed of coniferous or hard-wooded trees.
It is the abuse of the practice that, in this country at least, is so
to be condemned, and I entirely dissent from those who consider that
a coniferous plantation should be left to Nature, or, in other words,
should thin itself. The argument that the natural forests of America,
the source from which we derive the finest and best quality of timber,
thinned themselves, is often quoted; but it should also be remembered
that the conditions of such forests are widely different from those
of our own, and that the waste of timber is immense, great quantities
being destroyed in procuring what is required. Although, however,
we cannot adopt all the details of Nature’s practice, we can and we
should admit the correctness of the principle on which she acts, and by
studying this we learn much, and it is by acquiring a knowledge of her
economy, and where and when to apply assistance, that the point of the
whole argument rests. Natural regeneration, unless it be in a limited
number of cases, and particularly with our least valuable classes of
timber, is never, in this country, likely to supersede artificial
planting, and it has been conclusively proved in the Forest of Dean,
that with our most valuable timber-producing tree, the Oak, the latter
system is most to be encouraged.
No thinning of young trees should take place until a complete ground
shade has been established; and it is most important for the welfare of
the plantation, that a complete overhead foliage covering be brought
about at as early a date as possible after planting. At what age this
may take place will depend mainly on the size of the plants used and
the distance apart at which they were inserted in the ground, and
to a lesser extent on the quality of soil and other considerations.
At a short period after a complete leaf canopy has been established,
the individual trees begin to press against each other, and later on
a struggle for existence commences, the stronger specimens gaining
the supremacy over the weaker. Here it must be borne in mind that
hard-wooded trees require proportionately more room for their healthy
development than coniferous kinds, while length and clearness of
stem, produced by a due proportion of shade, is an object of prime
importance. It might, as some suppose, do little harm, to let the
struggle for existence go on unchecked, but there can be no question
that for several reasons it is wise policy to allow the stronger trees
every chance of succeeding, and to cut away the weaker. The object
should be to provide for the trees left standing that amount of room or
growing space best suited for bringing about the particular conditions
aimed at, and in thinning, it must be the aim of the forester to arrive
at the happy mean—neither over nor underdoing the work, the former in
particular. But while overcrowding is not to be tolerated, the danger
of suddenly exposing the trees to currents of air, to which they have
hitherto been unaccustomed, must be carefully guarded against, and it
should be distinctly borne in mind that to thin trees in an abrupt
manner is one of the greatest mistakes that it is possible to make.
Statistics compiled from a healthy Larch plantation, growing on fair
soil, and in a moderately sheltered position in southern England, will
now be given, from which a good idea can be formed as to the age and
size when thinning should be commenced. The trees when planted were 2
ft. high, and pitted at 3 ft. apart. In four years the outer branches
began to touch each other, and in six years from time of planting the
average height of trees was 7 ft. 10 in. and the shade occasioned had
killed out most of the grassy undergrowth. At this period of growth,
the disproportion in the size of the trees was, as is usually the case,
considerable, and left no doubt about which to remove when the first
thinning took place. Two years afterwards, or in eight years from time
of planting, thinning was first engaged in, the taller trees at that
time averaging nearly 11 ft. in height, but many of the suppressed and
weakly were little more than half that size. Another thinning took
place during the twelfth year, and in 1911 the trees average 40 ft. in
height and were standing at a distance of 9 ft. apart. The plantation
referred to is on the Earl of Derby’s property of Holwood, in Kent.
=2. To what extent should thinning be engaged in?=—In following up
the latter case, the tallest and healthiest trees were reserved; all
distorted, sickly, and stunted specimens being removed; but in the case
of two or more proportionately small trees growing in close proximity,
the most promising was left, and the others cut away, thus avoiding
gaps in the plantation. At the first thinning it will be found quite
impossible to leave the trees anything like regular over the ground,
although this should be studied as much as possible, and bare spaces
are to be carefully guarded against. With the vigorous growth of the
trees, and the interlacing of branches previous to the first thinning,
no great openings will require to be made, and nothing more than will
be canopied over during the next two years.
=3. What time should elapse between each thinning?=—This can only be
correctly decided after a careful inspection of the particular wood.
Generally speaking, after the first thinning, when the trees were
eight years old, the lower branches gradually began to give way, and
as the trees increased in height, this became more and more apparent,
and formed a good guide as to the time which should elapse before the
second thinning might profitably be engaged in. The intervals between
the various thinnings should for the first thirty years in the case of
Larch—and, indeed, most other trees—be comparatively short, but become
longer with advance of age; but heavy thinnings must be carefully
avoided, especially if the best class of coniferous timber is to be
produced.
A well-managed Larch plantation of twenty years’ growth should have
the trees branchless for about one-half of their height, which is, of
course, brought about by crowding, and at forty years three-fourths of
the trunk should be clear of branches.
I have purposely abstained from giving the number of feet apart at
which trees ought to stand at various stages of their growth, and the
number of thinnings they require, as being likely to prove misleading.
=4. The question as to which trees should be removed= need cause little
or no anxiety, as the dead, dying, diseased, and badly-formed will
naturally receive first attention.
In thinning, the following short rules should be observed:—
1. Thin not at all until the undergrowing vegetation has been
completely killed out by the overhead foliage, the golden rule of
sylviculture being to keep the sunshine off the ground until near the
end of the tree’s career.
2. Thinning should be performed in such a manner as not to reduce the
value of the crop, but so as to tend to the production of the greatest
quantity of the most valuable timber in the shortest possible space of
time.
3. By thinning allow of sufficient light and air to prevent the trees
becoming drawn up and lanky, but avoid too much space, which induces
the growth of side branches and detracts from the value of the timber.
4. Keep up the number of trees to the highest possible pitch until they
are tall, straight and clean, and thin gradually.
5. The danger of suddenly exposing the trees to currents of cold air to
which they have hitherto been unaccustomed must be carefully guarded
against and it is a serious mistake to thin in an abrupt or unequal
manner.
6. In thinning remove all dead and dying trees first, then the
distorted and stunted, the best grown and healthiest being preserved
for the permanent crop.
7. Hard-wooded trees require proportionately more space for development
than conifers, and the annual rings in the timber of the latter should
be narrow in proportion to those of the former, good quality of
hard-wooded timber being indicated by broad annual rings, but with
coniferous wood the reverse is the case.
8. Thinning should be commenced at the central or most sheltered point
of a plantation, or section of same, so that the outer intact boundary
may continue to form a barrier to cold winds, which might prove
injurious to trees that had hitherto stood in close order.
9. In economic forestry, timber trees should be cut down when they have
arrived at maturity or have ceased to grow. With coniferous trees this
generally occurs at from seventy to ninety years; but with hardwoods,
excepting the ash and chestnut, which are of most value, say, up to
fifty years’ growth, the period may be greatly extended.
10. Thinning is usually performed in autumn and early winter, but
it may be well to remember that at the latter period the lowest
percentage of moisture (about 47 per cent.) is present, and the timber
consequently of the greatest value for constructive purposes.
CHAPTER XV
TREE-PRUNING IN ECONOMIC FORESTRY
Where trees are grown for profit, they will, if properly managed, prune
themselves, and where for ornament the natural outline is far better
than any of the contortions and symmetrical shapes that have been
recommended by various writers on the subject.
A broken or dead branch may be removed, a rival leading shoot cut away,
or an ungainly or dangerous limb amputated, but here all pruning should
cease, the practice being wholly wrong and unreasonable, and without
one recommendation to be adduced in its favour. In an economic way the
finest plantations of either coniferous or hard-wooded trees in this
country are those where the individual specimens are growing so thickly
together that the branches are killed outright for fully one-half
of their height. Here the stems will be straight and clean, and the
timber when converted free from the knots and warping that are so
characteristic either of standard specimens or such as have been grown
too thinly on the ground.
Every one knows that an Oak growing alone or along the margins of
a wood is in nine cases out of ten branched almost to the ground,
and the bole in consequence rough and ill-fitted for any particular
constructive purpose, and the same may be said of every other tree,
be it hard-wooded or coniferous. Larch and Scotch Fir trees growing
along the margins of plantations are rough and knotty, and sell at a
considerably lower figure compared with those further in, where the
branches have been killed back gradually as the trees increased in
size.
The same thing is markedly the case in young woods of ash, oak and
chestnut, where they have been grown sufficiently thick on the ground
to kill off the lower branches, and also to cause the trees to rise
straight, clean and tapering. It is a well-known fact, too, that the
timber of trees so grown is far more elastic and realizes a much higher
price than that of the same age grown under conditions where pruning
might have been a necessity. A case of this kind came under my own
notice only a short time ago in which one-half of a plantation of
hard-wooded trees realized fully one-fourth more than the remaining
half. It came about in this way. Both ends and a large patch in the
centre of the wood had been thinned out severely for the purpose
of planting game covert. The trees, standing thinly on the ground,
branched out and soon covered the open spaces where underwood had been
planted. In thinning the whole plantation the trees on these particular
parts were very rough and knotty, and bore no comparison to those where
they had been left moderately thick on the ground, in consequence
of which the boles were straight, clean and tapering. This case is
specially noteworthy, inasmuch as the trees over the whole area were
growing under exactly similar conditions as to soil, shelter, etc., and
were of the same age and species.
Great and irreparable damage has been done to woods and plantations in
this country by too heavy thinnings, by commencing the thinnings at too
early a period, and by adopting the book method of leaving the trees
at measured distances apart and a stated number to the acre according
to the age of the plantation. Such rules can never be expected to work
satisfactorily, the size of trees depending so much on the character
of the soil, exposure of the woodland, and other peculiarities of the
particular district in which they are planted.
[Illustration: PRUNING TOOLS]
Timely and judicious thinning should never be neglected, but it is the
over-thinning, whereby branches and knotty trunks are produced and
the supposed need for pruning follows, that I wish to deprecate and
entirely dissent from. Grow your timber trees so thickly on the ground
that the stems are induced to become straight, clean and branchless for
the greater part of their height, and on no account admit sufficient
light and air to cause the lower branches to be retained intact, or, in
other words, at all times retain an unbroken leaf canopy. The necessity
for pruning will then be entirely done away with, and a more valuable
class of timber produced. The losses sustained through injudicious
planting and the unnecessary and ruinous practice of pruning have
taught a lesson that is fraught with good for the tree planter of the
future.
=When Pruning is Admissible.=—There are a few cases, however, where
pruning is quite justifiable, and where the abuse of a system should
furnish no argument against its legitimate use. Hedgerow and field
timber, for the sake of the live fences, the grass, or the grain crop
in the vicinity, may require attention in the way of judicious pruning.
Again, pruning is sometimes a necessity where standard trees are grown
in conjunction with coppice wood, as by shortening the lower branches
the undergrowth in consequence becomes much improved. In the case
of town trees, too, where it is necessary to restrict the spread of
branches, pruning is resorted to, as also with old and heavy-headed
elms and other trees in our parks and public gardens.
=Pruning Live Branches.=—In and around London, as well as many other
large centres of industry, the hacking and hewing—pruning we cannot
call it—to which trees are subjected is barbarous in the extreme, and
calls for the strongest denunciation. To annually prune and elbow
in such noble forest trees as the lime and plane, in order that the
restricted growth may render them suitable for the cramped positions in
which they have been unwisely planted, is little short of vandalism.
The lime and plane, perhaps, suffer most in this way, for as soon as
they have overgrown the allotted space an annual system of pruning
back the branches is resorted to, the result being great mop-headed
protuberances at the points where amputation took place, which not
only rob the tree of its graceful natural appearance, but render it
susceptible to disease and insect pests. There is no need to specialize
cases where this most objectionable system is carried out, for a walk
around our squares and gardens will unfortunately reveal how prevalent
is the maltreatment of trees in the way of pruning. There might be some
excuse for planting our noblest forest trees in cramped and unsuitable
positions were there no other species of smaller growth that would
take their place, but the Pyrus, Cratægus, dwarf Acacia, Mulberry,
Catalpa and Sumach surely give us sufficient scope for choosing trees
of restricted growth for confined positions and so do away with the
barbarous system of pruning which the use of large-growing species
necessitates.
[Illustration: BAD EFFECTS OF PRUNING]
Even in the case of dwarf avenues and screens it is quite unnecessary
to use such large-growing trees as the lime and plane where pruning
must oft be resorted to, for an avenue or screen of thorn or mulberry,
the beam tree or mountain ash would be more suitable, and in the end
far more natural and artistic in appearance.
To sum up in a few words, my contention is that no tree should be
planted in a position where, in order to keep it within due bounds, a
systematic clipping and pruning has to be resorted to.
=Pruning Dead Wood.=—Opinions differ greatly as to whether or not
dead branches should be removed from park and woodland trees. It is,
however, mainly a matter of taste, and a point on which two of the
largest owners of woodlands in this country hold distinctly opposite
opinions, though at the same time it cannot be denied that the careful
removal of all dead and dying wood from a tree is highly beneficial.
Pruning should, however, only be extended to such trees as are in a
fairly healthy condition, with well-developed heads, and containing
only a moderate quantity of dead wood, there being many fine old
specimens that would be rendered unsightly in the extreme and receive
no benefit from removal of the dead and dying timber, but this has
direct reference to trees standing singly throughout the park, and not
to specimens in the woodland.
In many of our parks and woodlands at the present time there exists
an undue quantity of dead and dying wood, which may be attributed
to natural decay, the quality of the soil, and in some instances to
long-standing neglect in the matter of non-attention to wounds which
have been caused by wind-broken limbs and branches. Such trees would
be greatly improved, both in health and appearance, by judicious
removal of the dead branches and attention to old wounds in order to
prevent the ingress of water, the decay of many branches being directly
attributable to this cause. That an undue quantity of dead wood will
induce injurious insect pests, such as the goat and wood leopard
moths, which attack healthy trees, is well known, and was exemplified
in one of our London parks recently where numerous young thorns and
various species of Pyrus were injured by the latter. In removing dead
branches cut them well back into the living wood in order to induce
fresh growth at the point where amputation takes place. The removal of
large dead limbs from old specimen trees is an operation that requires
a great amount of skill, and should only be entrusted to those who have
had practical experience of pruning in its various phases. As before
stated, the removal of dead wood is merely a matter of sentiment,
though of its practical utility there can be no doubt, and in all cases
where the stag-headed trees are conspicuous, the removal of the dead
wood is to be recommended.
=Pruning Shrubs.=—Generally speaking, shrubs are pruned with little or
no consideration as to whether they will be benefited by the operation.
While symmetry and regularity of outline are to be admired in a shrub,
these qualities should never be gained at the expense of natural grace
and production of flowers. The judicious pruner will, therefore, aim at
preserving the peculiar habit of each shrub as far as possible, while
interfering but little with the production of flowers. The various
species of Deutzia, Forsythia, Philadelphus and Weigela flower on the
wood of the previous year’s growth; therefore such shrubs should be
pruned immediately after the flowering season—say in June, but never in
spring or winter—at least, if the production of flowers is to be taken
into account. Again, the various species of Syringa, Spiræa, Lonicera
and Hibiscus may safely be pruned during winter, the flowers being
produced on the young wood; while _Hydrangea paniculata grandiflora_
must be severely pruned in early spring, for only by so doing will the
greatest wealth of flowers be produced. _Chimonanthus fragrans_ should
be pruned in February; while the various species of Ceanothus should
not be touched till all danger of frost is past. _Kerria japonica_
should be pruned in autumn, when old wood may be cut away.
All pruning operations should be carefully carried out with a sharp
knife and not with the pruning shears, the point of amputation being
always close to an eye or bud. Too severe pruning should be avoided,
a judicious thinning out of the branches being far preferable to
indiscriminate shearing and cutting back.
=How and when to Prune.=—The latter part of May or beginning of June
is undoubtedly the best season for pruning the majority of hard-wooded
trees, as during that time the motion of the sap is most vigorous, and
in consequence the wounds caused by amputation heal most quickly.
There are a few exceptions—the birch, sycamore and maple—where, on
account of profuse bleeding, pruning had best be postponed till after
full foliage has been attained.
Much mischief has been done by the pruning knife, and still more by the
handbill and saw when placed in the hands of inexperienced workmen—a
fact that is apparent to any interested person who visits various parts
of the country.
When conducted with care, on sound principles, the effect of pruning
on the class of timber referred to is highly beneficial, whereas, when
done in a haphazard way and by an inexperienced hand, it is often
attended with great danger and grave results.
In cutting or foreshortening small branches, a sharp pocket-knife will
be found most convenient, but when large limbs have to be removed the
pruning saw should be brought into request. The branch to be removed,
especially if of large size and weighty, should first be cut through at
any convenient distance from the main stem, thus preventing splitting
and tearing of the bark, after which the stump may be neatly sawn
through as close to the bole of the tree as possible. Undercutting by a
few draughts of the saw will here also go far in preventing tearing of
the wood and bark. So as to render the saw-cut smooth and prevent water
lodging on the surface, the face and edge should be neatly dressed with
an adze or sharp pruning knife, and then painted with tar. When cutting
over an upright-growing branch, such as in pollarding trees, etc.,
never cut on the horizontal, but always in a sloping direction, so that
the rain may pass off quickly.
CHAPTER XVI
BRACING AND REPAIRING TREES
Though occasionally resorted to in olden times, particularly in the
case of orchard trees, it is only of late years that the systematic
treatment of tree wounds and diseases has been generally adopted. Even
at the present time, the filling of hollow trunks, bracing of heavy and
diseased branches and attention to insect and fungoid pests are rarely
engaged in and but imperfectly understood.
When the value of old trees in an ornamental or utilitarian sense is
taken into account, it is remarkable what a small amount of attention
they receive when subjected to accident or disease. As a general rule,
cavities or hollows in a tree stem, if left to themselves, gradually
increase in size until the ascending sap is entirely cut off, when the
crumbling stem either falls to pieces or is broken over by the wind. A
branch requires to be braced or strengthened when from its weight and
shape it is likely to get wrenched from the main stem during stormy
weather and so injure the tree or man its natural beauty.
Both insect and fungoid pests do a considerable amount of damage to
trees, both young and old, but as special chapters are devoted to their
depredations they need only receive a passing notice here.
=Hollow Trunks and their Treatment.=—However desirable it may be to
repair hollow trunks, yet a great deal of discrimination is necessary
in deciding which trees should be operated upon, especially in the case
of such as are reduced to mere shells and are not likely to derive any
benefit commensurate with the labour and cost of materials involved in
bracing and filling.
Young, healthy, vigorous growing trees, that have become damaged or
diseased, should in the majority of instances be attended to; but in
the case of old specimens on which a great amount of labour and money
would necessarily have to be expended, several important bearings must
be considered before works of repair are taken in hand. Historic and
valuable trees, those occupying prominent positions on a lawn or park,
town trees where vegetation is scarce, and such as are not too old and
fragile, may be dealt with within certain bounds, but to doctor all
diseased and hollow trees on the most approved principle in such places
as Epping Forest or Burnham Beeches would be highly imprudent, whether
in view of the little benefit which in many instances would accrue by
so doing or of the great expense involved in such an operation.
The filling, too, must be adapted to circumstances, and to deal with
the entire trunk of a hollow tree is in most cases quite out of the
question, both from the point of utility and expense. Short-lived
trees, such as the Alder, Birch and Poplar, or such as are liable
to sudden attacks of insect and fungoid pests, and those that are
unfavourably situated in mining and chemical areas, should be scantily
dealt with, but the practical woodman will see at a glance which trees
are best worthy of his attention and treatment.
Probably the simplest, and certainly the cheapest method of dealing
with diseased and hollow trunks is to clean out thoroughly all dead
and decaying matter, the interior being scraped and swept with a
rough brush, so that the loose rotting wood and bark is removed. When
quite dry, the interior of the trunk should be painted with one, or
preferably with two coats of creosote or carbolineum, and filled up
with a composition of one part of Portland cement to three of clean
gravel and sand, the surface coating at the orifice containing the
largest quantity of cement. A coat of coal tar on top of the dry
creosote goes far in making the concrete adhere firmly to the wood.
When a fairly healthy tree is being operated upon, and when the bark
is likely to grow over the exposed surface, the concrete should only
be brought up on a level with the underside of the living bark; in
other words, the cambium should be left free for expansion. Sometimes,
brickbats, broken small, are used instead of gravel, but for various
reasons concrete is preferable. The concrete surface may be prevented
from cracking by applying annually a coat of paint, which, for
appearance sake, may be of a similar colour to that of the bark of the
tree.
In the case of a large tree in which the trunk is quite hollow, usually
with a basal and top opening, the amount of cement required to fill the
cavity precludes the possibility of it being employed on the score of
economy, but where the hollow only extends for a comparatively short
distance upwards and inwards the composition is to be recommended. When
a large amount of material is required to fill a hollow stem, clean
bricks broken to about the size of a golf ball may be used, but they
must be packed firmly and the surface, wherever it comes in contact
with the weather, glazed over with cement in order to effectually shut
out dampness. Asphalt has of late years been employed in the filling of
hollow stems, and is to be recommended on account of its elasticity and
lasting properties.
Sometimes, the interior of a large, hollow tree stem is strengthened
by crossbeams of timber, any holes which extend to the outside being
carefully covered with sheet lead or zinc so as to prevent the ingress
of water. A sheet of lead or zinc is, however, only a superficial
remedy and should be dispensed with where filling the cavity is at all
practicable. Lead, in some cases, is preferable to zinc for covering
wounds in trees, as it fits into position more readily and is easily
fixed.
The treatment of hollow stems without filling the cavity is in certain
instances quite permissible, and can be carried out at a comparatively
small cost. Broadly speaking, this method consists in cleaning out all
decayed and decaying matter, painting the interior with carbolineum
or tar, and, where possible, bracing the trunk from the interior by
means of stout crossbars of wood and covering surface holes with lead,
zinc or sheet copper. When a tree trunk is hollow from top to bottom
this method is to be recommended, and stout struts placed within the
cavity at various of the weaker points will go far towards preserving
many an aged specimen. When the cavity in a hollow stem is so large
that a person can enter it, the work of either filling with a suitable
composition or supporting with wooden struts is greatly simplified.
Recent experiments have proved the value of a mixture of sawdust and
asphalt for filling cavities. It is particularly valuable in cases
where concrete is too rigid and unyielding, such as in dealing with
trunks and branches that are apt to be swayed about in stormy weather.
The materials are dry sawdust, that of Oak, Chestnut and Beech being
preferable, and solid asphalt derived from the refining of petroleum,
which is at present in use for filling the interstices of street
pavements in various parts of the metropolis.
For filling cavities in heavy, swaying branches, one part of asphalt
to four of clean, dry sawdust will form a mixture that is non-rigid
and yields with the motion of the branch in which it is inserted.
In dealing with the trunk, which is more rigid and less affected in
stormy weather, a larger quantity of sawdust should be used. The
filling is made by stirring dry sawdust into boiling asphalt until
the desired consistency is reached, and before the composition has
cooled, it should be inserted in the previously prepared cavity. As in
cement filling, the preparation of cavities to be filled with sawdust
and asphalt should be carefully attended to, the decayed wood and
all soft and rotten material being removed, and the interior surface
rendered sterile by an application of carbolineum or kerosene. For
wound dressings, gas tar and liquid asphalt is to be recommended, this
combination forming a more continuous and elastic covering than is the
case when tar or paint alone is used.
Where the cavity is small and, as is often the case, filled with water
and decayed and decaying vegetable matter, the following course is
recommended:—When only a few inches deep, the water can usually be
got rid of by mopping it out with a sponge attached to a convenient
handle, but when the hole is too deep for this method the water may be
extracted by tapping, that is by boring a hole with an auger through
the trunk to the bottom of the hole. A half-inch auger will suffice,
and the correct spot to bore can usually be ascertained by measuring
the depth of the hole. After the water has been removed the cavity
must be thoroughly cleared of all decaying tissue and accumulated
vegetable matter, and in order that this may be done effectually, it
may sometimes be necessary to enlarge the opening so that a suitable
tool can be inserted.
When the cavity has become quite dry—a matter of considerable
importance—it should be treated with creosote or carbolineum and
afterwards filled with concrete in the proportion of one part of cement
to four of clean gravel. Ram the concrete firm so that the cavity is
perfectly filled, and finish off at the orifice with pure cement in
such a way that the cambium may be induced to form a growth over the
edge of the filling.
A cheap but temporary method of dealing with small hollows and cavities
in fruit and other trees, is to fill these with a mixture of clay and
cow-dung in the proportion of two of the former to one of the latter.
Knead well and apply when in the consistency of putty, cleaning and
disinfecting the hollows before filling.
=Supporting Heavy and Diseased Branches.=—A limb requires to be braced
or strengthened when from its weight and shape it is likely to get
wrenched from the main stem during stormy weather, when the weight of
the minor branches and foliage is too great for the strength of the
limb, when the wood of the tree is unusually brittle, when trunk or
limb is decayed, and when, from accident, the tree has become one-sided
and lost its natural appearance.
Forked trees often require staying, as also do such as have suddenly
become exposed to storms to which they have hitherto been unaccustomed.
But probably in the matter of bracing and strengthening, the most
important of all trees are those in our public parks and such as are
contiguous to or overshadow dwelling-houses. Park trees should receive
special attention in the way of making sure that limbs are secure and
not likely to cause injury to visitors; while in the case of heavy
branches hanging over dwelling-houses these should be carefully and
periodically examined and made secure whenever it is found necessary.
Should there be any doubt as to whether a limb is insecure and
dangerous, a decision should be made in favour of bracing or reducing
the weight by pruning.
Unwieldy and heavy limbs are most commonly to be found on isolated
trees, or such as have had plenty of room for the perfect development
of stem and branch. As the loss of one or more of the larger branches
often mars the ornamental appearance of a specimen tree, every
reasonable means should be employed to prevent such a disfigurement.
By reducing the weight of a branch by pruning, or by giving support to
any that are heavy and diseased by means of wires, chains or light iron
bands and connecting-rods, the trouble may be averted. In all cases
the object should be to unite the branches in such a way that they
may offer the greatest amount of resistance to the storm, and at the
same time be neither conspicuous nor clumsy in appearance owing to the
operation.
Chains, though often used, probably owing to their being readily
obtainable and cheap, are for various reasons to be avoided, the flat
iron band lined with leather or rubber being preferable, more readily
adjusted, and less likely to cut into the bark and wood. The bands,
which can be made by any blacksmith, are usually 2½ in. wide, and of
the shape of the branch to be encircled, each being in two parts to
facilitate fixing and to allow of slackening at any future time should
the necessity arise. The band is made of a larger size than the branch
to be encircled, so as to allow of the insertion of a leather or rubber
collar between it and the wood, the purpose of the packing being to
prevent undue friction and chafing of the bark owing to the movement of
the tree. The bands, whether placed around two opposite branches or the
main stem and a branch, are connected together by a light iron rod and,
according to the strain, may be from one-half to three-quarters of an
inch in diameter. This rod, like the bands, is divided into two parts,
which are connected by a swivel and screw for convenience in loosening
or tightening.
[Illustration: BRACING A TREE]
Great care is necessary in choosing the point at which a band should
be placed, and in deciding which branches or branch and stem should be
joined together, so that the greatest resistance may be obtained and in
order that the one may act as a support to the other. The shape of the
tree and disposition of the stem and branches can alone be the guides
in this matter. In comparison with the use of a chain, the advantages
of this method of supporting heavy branches are principally ease of
fixing, greater rigidity, less friction, adaptability for loosening or
tightening as may be required, and better results.
Accurate measurements as to the size and shape of the limb to be
operated upon must be taken and the girdling hoops made accordingly.
The best way to take these is to ascend the tree, and, after deciding
as to the points where bracing is to take place, encircle each branch
with a strip of hoop-iron, which will not only give the size but shape
of the particular limb, a most important point where neatness is
studied and after-chafing of the bark and wood is to be avoided.
[Illustration: BAND AND CONNECTING-ROD]
In the case of old trees, or such as are not likely to greatly increase
in size, the bands need not be much larger than the actual size of
the branches to which they are to be affixed, but where the tree is
young and vigorous, room for expansion should be provided. Fixing the
bands and connecting-rods is readily accomplished either by the use
of ladders or by climbing the trunk and slinging the portions into
position by means of ropes. The exigencies of each case will point out
the best means of carrying out the work, as also the height at which
the supports can most effectively be placed. When damaged or diseased
branches are being dealt with, great care is necessary to ensure that
the bands are placed in such positions that the greatest leverage
against wind is afforded, and so as to minimize the risk of the branch
being broken across at the weakened point during stormy weather.
Frequently, where the main trunk divides into two or more portions near
ground level, it will be found that a split or crack has been caused by
the swaying of the divided stems. In such cases the split between the
stems should be carefully cleaned out, treated with an antiseptic and
filled with asphalt. The limbs should then be braced together by means
of a band and connecting-rod, and, as the asphalt becomes set, the
brace may be tightened up as may be found necessary.
Rarely is it found necessary to place a band around the stem of a
tree to prevent splitting. Where, however, appearances point to the
likelihood of this taking place, as in the case of forked trees,
especially when the stem divides abruptly into two or three heavy
limbs, it is a wise precaution to encircle the bole with a wide band
of iron. This band should be placed at such a height that the greatest
possible resistance to splitting of the stem is afforded. Such bands
are usually proportionate to the strain of the stem to which they are
to act as support. A band of leather or rubber between the iron and
bark of the tree to allow for expansion of the stem is necessary.
Supporting tree branches by chains is not to be recommended, for the
simple reason that, however carefully they may be adjusted, friction
and chafing of the bark and wood is sooner or later bound to ensue.
Connecting the flat iron bands, already referred to, by means of chains
or strand wire, is, however, not so open to objection nor attended
with such ill effects as is the case when the chain or wire is placed
in direct contact with the branch, for even with the most careful
adjusting and packing, the uneven surface of a chain, with its saw-like
action during stormy weather, soon renders the belting useless for the
purpose intended, and both bark and wood suffer in consequence.
Occasionally we see holes bored through the live branch or trunk in
order to fix the binding rod or chain—a most reprehensible practice
that, fortunately, has few supporters amongst those who have even had a
cursory knowledge of trees and their growth.
It is, however, generally admitted that there are several disadvantages
connected with bracing trees with iron rods that pass through holes
bored in the trunk or branch. However carefully this operation may be
performed, there are grave risks from insect and fungoid attacks in
holes that have been made in living wood, as the friction caused by the
movement of the tree renders healing of the wound quite problematical.
Further, the movement of an embedded iron rod is not only apt to cause
friction with the wood but the strain must often be in an opposite
direction to that which was intended, this increasing with the diameter
of the stem or branch.
Another untidy, slipshod and most objectionable method of staying a
tree is by using wire as a band around the trunk. This certainly has
the virtue of cheapness, but in so far as efficiency is concerned, and
especially in the case of old trees, it is to be deprecated.
In the repairing and strengthening of tree limbs it should consistently
be borne in mind that any girdle or band that either partially or
wholly constricts the growth of a branch defeats its own object
by preventing the uninterrupted flow of sap and impairing the
strength of the limb. With care in forming the band and a proper
method of adjusting it, there is no reason why the desired object
of strengthening a stem or branch may not be attained. On the other
hand, a badly formed, narrow band, too tightly applied and without
the requisite packing, may in a short space of time be productive of
the most unsatisfactory results, particularly in the case of young
and fast-growing trees. The main point is that the bands should be
fixed in such a way that friction to the bark is avoided and the flow
of sap uninterrupted. Unfortunately in the past this has not in all
cases been carefully provided against, with the result that the bands,
owing to their being too small, gradually became embedded in the wood
and, by injuring the cambium and preventing the flow of sap, defeated
the object for which they were intended. For fuller information on
doctoring trees, the reader is referred to my book on _Tree Wounds and
Diseases_.
CHAPTER XVII
COPPICE AND UNDERWOOD: THE MANAGEMENT OF COPPICE WOOD
Although coppice wood has deteriorated considerably in value during
late years, yet in certain districts and on suitable soils its
cultivation is still to be recommended. Unfortunately, however, the
uses to which coppice wood are in the main applied are much localized,
and this, with the bulky nature of the commodity, will to a very
considerable extent restrict its sale to the localities in which it is
used. Thus in parts of Kent and Sussex hop poles find a ready market,
pea and bean stakes in the gardening districts around London, crate
wood in the neighbourhood of potteries, willow and ash in basket-making
localities, and faggot wood wherever kilns abound, or in the environs
of populous districts generally. It will, therefore, be seen that next
to the question of soil probably the most important is that of local
demand, so that in forming a coppice plantation only such underwood
should be used as there is a demand for in the particular district.
Foreign importations and preferential carriage rates have also dealt
hardly with the profitable cultivation of coppice wood. Coppice wood
may either be grown alone or in company with large standard trees, but
the latter must at all times be kept sufficiently thin, so as not to
overshadow and kill out the undergrowth. There are advantages, too,
in employing standards for the protection they afford to the young
shoots in spring, as also in the amount realized for the periodical
thinnings to which they may be subjected. For this purpose the oak is
to be recommended, but such wide-spreading trees as the ash, elm and
beech, which produce so dense a shade as to kill out or seriously
injure all vegetation that might spring up beneath them, are to be
avoided. Generally where the health and vigour of the coppice wood are
points of first consideration, it will not be advisable to allow the
standard trees to occupy altogether more than about one-fifth of the
wooded area; and even then the lower branches should be pruned off, so
that the effects of shade will be mitigated as much as possible. As to
the woods which coppice most freely, the ash, oak and hazel occupy the
first rank, at least in a profitable sense, the elm, willow, beech,
birch, hornbeam, alder and sycamore occupying a second, but, as before
stated, the nature of the soil, and less so the altitude and exposure,
have everything to do with the particular species that will succeed
best. Thus ash will do well where the soil is moist and loamy, the
Spanish chestnut in sandy or gravelly districts, for rich plains and
hollows the oak will be most remunerative, the alder and willow in
marshy ground, and where bare and exposed, the birch, hazel, beech and
hornbeam will succeed best.
The preparation of the land and planting for coppice are similar in all
respects to that adopted for the growing of an ordinary timber crop.
Where the ground is too wet, draining should be judiciously engaged
in, while trenching, although expensive at first, is amply compensated
for in the increased growth and vigour of the underwood. The pits for
planting may be made from 3½ ft. to 4 ft. apart, and, if the ground
was previously trenched, of sufficient size to hold the roots without
undue cramping. It is always well to keep the stools tolerably close
together, as the shoots take a more erect habit and are straighter
and more valuable than when allowed too much space and side room. Two
years after being planted, or at the end of the second autumn, the
young trees, excepting such as it may be thought advisable to leave as
standards, should be cut over near ground level. This cutting is a most
important operation, and should only be performed by skilled workmen,
with tools of the best description well sharpened. The cut should be
clean and directed upwards, all splitting of the stems and tearing of
the bark being assiduously guarded against as conducive to decay and
early death to the stools. After four years’ growth the shoots should
be thinned out, leaving, say, four on each stool, and these preferably
the strongest, the work being carried out at any time from November to
the end of March, but not during frosty weather.
Upon the kind of wood grown and uses for which it is designed will
depend very much the length of rotation pursued, for while osiers might
profitably be cut at the end of the second year, ash, oak and chestnut
would not usually, even on the best quality of soil, be felled sooner
than from ten to twelve years, and the poorer classes of coppice wood,
especially on light soil, at from twelve to sixteen years. It should
be remembered, however, that the duration of the stool is usually
proportionate to the length of the rotation adopted, and with good
management on fair soil the best class of coppice wood has a duration
of nearly a century. In felling the coppice wood it is always advisable
to cut as near the ground level as possible, the shoots sent up having
the advantage of rooting in the ground and so extending the area of
the stool. The system of allowing the stools, by careless cutting, to
rise in some instances several feet from the ground is contrary to the
methods adopted under the best management. A sharp billhook should be
used for all smaller shoots, a light well-ground axe for those from 3
to, say, 6 inches in diameter, and the cross-cut saw for all over that
size.
The coppice wood is usually sorted out after being cut down, the best
poles being laid aside for the use of the hop grower, the next size for
pit props, or fencing according to the demand of the moment, and so on
until every pole has been sorted according to the use for which it may
be intended, the lop and branches being bound into faggots for fire or
oven-lighting.
The following are the various uses to which underwood is applied:
hoops, hurdles, crate rods, pea stakes, spars for thatching, withes for
faggot-tying, sheep cages, hop poles, brooms, broom handles, skewers
for butchers, chisel handles, plant stakes, whip handles, gunpowder
wood and faggots.
Profits will vary from 15_s._ to 25_s._ per acre, exclusive of the
standards which are left, and the crop, according to age and quality,
will realize from £5 per acre downwards.
Great care is necessary to avoid damage to the stools when removing
the fall, which is not usually done until just before the young buds
are shooting out, and consequently at the time when injury is most
easily brought about. The trampling of horses and passage of wheels
are most injurious, while the browsing of cattle should be carefully
guarded against. Good roads are always a great advantage in a coppice
plantation, and to these as much of the produce as possible should be
carried for loading, thus avoiding damage to the stools.
Although the growth of coppice wood has its disadvantages, particularly
in park scenery, yet it is valuable in this way, that should the crop
from local circumstances not be found remunerative, the plantation can
at any time be converted into a standing wood by allowing the best and
strongest shoots from the stools to form the permanent crop.
The approximate cost of forming a coppice wood per acre is as follows:—
£ _s._ _d._
Trenching at 2_s._ per rod 16 0 0
5,000 trees at 35_s._ per 1,000 8 15 0
Pitting and planting 2 5 0
————————————————
£27 0 0
CHAPTER XVIII
THE FORMATION AND MANAGEMENT OF GAME COVERTS
When we consider that on not a few estates in this country the value
of the plantations as game coverts is wellnigh of as much importance
as that of the timber produced, it will be readily seen that the
successful formation and management of these is a matter of no small
moment to those entrusted with the work. That game-rearing and economic
forestry can be advantageously carried on in the same woods is,
however, a contention we by no means feel inclined to uphold, and from
which, being apart from the subject matter of the chapter, we will for
the present stand aloof.
Game coverts may be divided into two kinds, natural and
artificial—natural when the woods are kept sufficiently thin to admit
of the free growth of bramble, bracken or other native vegetation;
and artificial when the planting of such shrubs as are suitable for
underwood is resorted to.
Natural game coverts, which, by most sportsmen, are considered superior
to those artificially formed, can only exist where the plantations
are kept well and regularly thinned, so as to admit abundance of both
light and air—the two principal requisites for the successful growth of
natural underwood. Generally speaking, the formation of natural coverts
has seldom to be helped, although occasionally it is found necessary
to assist Nature by the sowing of such seeds as those of gorse, broom,
etc., in the thinner and more open portions of the woodlands. This may,
however, be considered an exception to the rule, as where the woods
are kept sufficiently thin, spontaneous undergrowth is usually pretty
abundant, and requires neither care nor management, beyond preventing
its too free incursions along the margins of roads and shooting drives.
Where, however, bare patches do occur, the sowing of seed may be relied
upon as not only a speedy but most effectual method of increasing
the cover. Where seeds are intended to be sown, the soil should be
dug over, and all hard clods or lumps broken down, and the whole
made smooth and fine with a rake. The seeds may be sown in spring,
and afterwards covered over with hardwood branches as a preservative
against the depredations of small birds and game.
The best natural game coverts are those composed of bramble, gorse,
heath, hazel, holly, blackthorn, elder, blackberry, bracken or the
stronger growing grasses, these being arranged according to merit, and
each possessing some peculiar feature, specially recommending it for
planting in certain soils, altitudes or situations.
In the formation of artificial game coverts, when not only shelter and
protection for game are required, but ornamental effect as well, the
judicious grouping of the different shrubs should never be lost sight
of, more especially when the coverts are within the park or policy
grounds, and visible from drives and roads. Formality and stiffness are
so often the characteristics of the present style of shrub planting,
that in many cases our woodlands seem utterly destitute of that variety
of outline and contrast of light and shade so essential to picturesque
beauty. In planting evergreen shrubs for the two-fold purpose of covert
and ornament, the best method is to plant each variety in separate
groups or clumps. No hard and fast lines can be laid down as to the
distribution or number of plants to be used in the clumps, which, to a
great extent, must depend on the size and shape of the ground as well
as taste of the operator. The clumps should, however, be placed at
irregular distances apart, be irregular in size and outline, and with
from forty or fifty to one hundred plants in each—bearing in mind that
game of all kinds delight in small patches of shrubs with abundance of
open space around each, but detest in a most marked manner continuous
masses or jungles of underwood.
In selecting sites for the various groups, be careful to choose the
most open positions, avoiding as much as possible planting immediately
under the spread of trees; and, if practicable, so arrange that in
viewing the wood from any point, the eye may not pass along a straight
bare unplanted space, but become arrested by the various clumps in
passing to the farther side.
Having arranged the positions of the various clumps, the pits should
be opened of a size, and at a distance apart suitable for the plants
intended to be used, taking care that they are sufficiently large to
avoid cramping or bending of the roots, which in all cases should be
spread out to their full extent. In making the pits, it is well to
thoroughly loosen the soil in the bottom and sides with a pick, so as
to give the tender rootlets a free course when starting into growth
in spring. Should the soil be found of inferior quality, a few loads
of leaf-mould, road-scrapings or loam from an adjoining field will be
found to work wonders in the way of giving the plants a start, and also
in producing a strong, healthy growth. Drainage should also have been
attended to previous to opening the pits, and all stagnant water or
superfluous moisture removed by the formation of open ditches.
In giving a list of the best evergreen shrubs for covert purposes, I
would call attention particularly to the merits of laurel, box, privet,
laurustinus, rhododendron, holly and yew, as these have been very
extensively used for underwood, and with the best possible results.
As to which of the above shrubs should receive pre-eminence as an
ornamental covert plant I cannot decide, each having some peculiar
merit rendering it valuable in its own particular place. We will for
the present, however, consider all alike in this respect, and briefly
describe the value of each separately, beginning with the laurel.
The =Common= and =Colchic= laurels are amongst our best shrubs for
underwood, and should be planted extensively; they are of free growth,
bear cutting and pruning well, and thrive under the shade and drip of
other trees. For covert planting the Colchic is perhaps preferable
to the normal form, as it is of a more dense and procumbent habit,
perfectly hardy, and less liable to injury from hares and rabbits.
The common laurel requires frequent and heavy pruning to keep it in
bounds, as, if allowed to ramble at will, it soon becomes bare near
the ground, and useless either as game covert or ornament. Some years
ago we layered a great number of this plant that had through neglect
become useless for the purpose intended, many being from 12 ft. to
over 20 ft. in height, with simply a tuft of foliage near the top. In
layering, the stems were sawn half through near the ground, to assist
in bending, and laid flat on their sides, a couple of stout pegs being
driven alongside, the crooked heads of which served to keep the plants
in their procumbent position. A spadeful of soil was then placed on
the top of each peg to assist the layer in rooting. The result at the
present time is everything that could be desired, each stem having
thrown up quantities of young shoots, and thus formed a jungle of
underwood, which year by year will increase in value.
In planting the laurel for covert avoid overcrowding, as, being of
quick growth, the plants, even although placed at a considerable
distance apart, soon unite and form a continuous undergrowth. No rule
can be laid down as to the distance which should be allowed between
individual plants, this depending entirely on their size, as well
as on the quality of the soil in which they are to be planted. We
not unfrequently plant double thick, either for immediate effect, or
to produce covert at once, and when the plants begin to encroach on
each other every alternate one is removed, thus giving the remaining
plants ample room for developing side branches and thereby inducing a
dwarf-spreading habit. Having a tendency, especially when confined,
to increase more in height than width, the laurel, after a few years’
growth, should have all the leading and straggling upper branches
cut over, by which not only will the under shoots be increased but
the plants will be prevented from running up into tall, branchless
specimens.
The =Green Tree Box= (_Buxus sempervirens_) forms a very pretty as
well as desirable covert plant, and thrives well beneath the shade of
deciduous trees. It is also of slow, dense growth, and well adapted for
planting in various soils and situations, although preferring a light
loam and a shady position. Another recommendation is its immunity from
the attacks of game, hares and rabbits having such an aversion to this
plant that even during the most severe weather I cannot remember having
seen it badly injured. Few plants suffer more from overcrowding than
the box, and for this reason it should be planted at wide distances
apart, the plants soon getting top-heavy and falling over of their own
accord. Where the plants are not of large size, and immediate effect
or covert is required, they may be planted pretty close, and in a few
years, when encroaching on each other, every alternate one may be
removed. It is well adapted for transplanting, the almost solid mass of
matted roots holding the ball of earth firmly together, thus rendering
the plant one of our easiest as well as safest to remove.
The box would seem at one time to have been more abundant in our own
land than it now is; thus, Boxley in Kent, Boxwell in Gloucestershire,
and Boxhill in Surrey, were named from the quantity of this plant which
was formerly found in their neighbourhoods.
=Privet=, as a covert plant, has its advantages and disadvantages.
On the one hand it is cheap, easily grown, and not at all fastidious
about soil. When planted amongst trees, however, it generally assumes
a loose, straggling habit, and as the shade increases it usually dies
out altogether. Where the plantations are well thinned and regularly
kept so, privet, if a little care and trouble be expended on its
cultivation, will succeed and form capital underwood. In planting
privet the greatest care is necessary to prevent its being overdone.
Close planting is always productive of the most unsatisfactory results,
not only as regards the health of the plants, but management of the
woods as well. Instead of filling up the whole ground, as is not
unfrequently done, plant in small clumps, and these at wide distances
apart, as this will not only allow the privet to grow more healthy
and compact but also admit of space for pruning and layering—two
necessaries for the successful cultivation of privet as underwood.
The layering of privet, which is a simple and inexpensive though
effectual method of increase, is performed as follows:—Cut off all the
branches, except those intended for layering, which are then laid flat
on the ground equidistant around the main stem or root and kept fast
by hooked pegs driven firmly down. A spadeful or two of soil should
then be placed on the top of each peg, which will partly exclude air
and hasten the formation of roots. The pegs may be made of any refuse
branches—hard wood, such as ash or oak, being preferable—about 10 ins.
in length, one end being hooked for holding the branches in position,
and the other sharply pointed for ease in driving. As several forms of
privet have crept into circulation of late, it is well to be sure that
none but the true evergreen are used in the formation of game coverts.
The oval-leaved privet, though a most desirable evergreen plant and
well suited for ornamental hedges, is from its too luxuriant growth and
upright form hardly to be commended for underwood; at least, its merits
in this respect are inferior to those of the common form.
=Aucuba Japonica= and the =Laurustinus= are two of our handsomest
evergreen shrubs, but, unlike those already described, they will not
succeed in the densest shade. In open places or along woodland drives
they thrive well, and are excellent for variety and contrast. The
laurustinus cannot, however, be considered as perfectly hardy in this
country, for even in maritime situations where the air is to some
extent ameliorated, it suffers severely from frost, and during severe
winters it is even killed completely to the ground. It, however,
springs very freely from the root, and in a few years quite regains its
original size and luxuriance. From their bushy, well-furnished habit
of growth both the above plants are excellent as game covert, more
especially around the outskirts of woods and plantations. They should
be allowed plenty of room for development of both root and branch,
though they may, when necessary, be pruned with the greatest advantage.
=Mahonia aquifolia=, =Berberis Darwinii= and =B. Stenophylla= are
frequently recommended as covert plants and for using in similar
situations to those favoured by the laurel and box. Along the margins
of plantations or in very open places they may and do succeed, but from
practical experience of these plants we find them next to useless as
underwood in shady positions. Where many thousands of covert plants
are used annually, we have entirely discarded them from use except in
the most open situations. These plants are highly ornamental, both in
foliage and flower; produce berries which are much sought after by
game, are quite hardy, and not at all fastidious about soil—qualities
which specially recommend them for extensive use in positions at all
suited for their growth.
The barberry, more especially when planted out in rich soil, and
when at all confined, is apt to lose the compact, branchy nature so
recognizable a feature of the plant when allowed ample room in the
nursery border, and to assume a more upright habit of growth, which is
anything but desirable in underwood generally. To check this and keep
the plant in bounds, frequent light prunings will have to be resorted
to, and this had best be effected during dull, damp weather, as the
barberry is not a good subject for the pruning shears. Neither the
barberry nor mahonia are adapted for planting in very high or exposed
situations—at least where such has been tried the results have been
anything but satisfactory, the plants soon presenting a miserable,
half-starved appearance.
Both plants are readily propagated—the mahonia, when planted in
loose soil and an open situation, soon covering a considerable space
of ground, the running roots being especially active under such
circumstances.
=Rhododendron ponticum=, although useful in an ornamental point of
view, cannot be considered a first-class plant for game shelter. It
has, however, several good qualities which recommend it for underwood,
such as ease of culture, dwarf-spreading habit, and immunity from the
attacks of game—indeed, in this latter respect, it is not equalled
by any other plant, if we except one or two species of Daphne. It is
seldom resorted to by pheasants, the bottom being not only damp, but
such a tangled mass of branches that it forms anything but pleasant
quarters for game. For ornamental effect along the outskirts of
plantations, the rhododendron is invaluable, and is by no means so
fastidious about soil as is generally supposed, peat being not at all
essential to its growth and successful cultivation. Few plants can be
made to increase in like proportion with the rhododendron, and for
this reason it should be planted in small patches; and when it is
desirable to increase the cover, the outer branches may be pegged down
or layered. This plant also bears pruning with impunity, so that old
plants that have, through neglect, become lank and straggling, may
without fear or risk be layered or pruned in with advantage.
The =Common Yew= and =Holly= cannot be too extensively used in the
formation of game coverts, both being unrivalled for beauty and
hardiness. They thrive in a great variety of soils, and beneath the
densest shade of our woodland trees. In planting the yew it is well,
however, to bear in mind that its branches are highly deleterious to
farm stock that may browse upon them, and for this reason it should
never be planted along the outskirts of a wood, or in any position to
which such have access.
The =St. John’s Wort=, as a low-spreading shrub, is unsurpassed, and
thrives best in a light sandy or peaty soil. It is readily propagated
by division of the roots; and when planted out in small patches a foot
or two apart, the creeping stems soon cover a considerable surface of
ground, and form a dense evergreen mass, covered in summer with bright
golden flowers.
=Gaultheria Shallon=, another plant of creeping habit, is,
notwithstanding its many good qualities, seldom planted to any extent
in our woodlands; but this may, to some extent at least, be accounted
for by the high price of the plants, and the small size of those
purchaseable from our nurserymen. Like most other North American
plants, the Gaultheria prefers a rather damp, peaty soil, and is one of
the few shrubs found to thrive in pine plantations. The berries, which
are borne in great abundance, are greedily devoured by pheasants, and
in their native country are not unfrequently used as food.
The =Butcher’s Broom= is a fine glaucous green shrub densely covered
with sharp, prickly, leaves and invaluable for planting in shady
places—indeed, in such positions it seems to be quite at home. There
it flowers and fruits freely beneath half-standard rhododendrons where
few other plants could exist, far less succeed. The twigs of this shrub
were formerly used by butchers for sweeping their blocks; hence the
English name.
Some of the above plants, notably the =St. John’s Wort= and
=Gaultheria=, may be considered as carpet plants, which, in
contradistinction to general underwood, may be classed as evergreens,
which, from their low, procumbent mode of growth, are scarcely in the
true sense of the word suited for game coverts. To clearly define
the difference would, however, be no easy matter, and, even were it
possible to do so, would in the end be productive of but little good,
as the habits of different plants vary so much that what is used in
one place for carpeting purposes might in another and more favourable
situation be equally valuable for game covert. A good example of
this will be found in the St. John’s Wort, which, when planted out
and allowed to ramble at will amongst bramble, privet, etc., forms a
capital covert; whereas, when used in open, airy situations—such as
alongside shrubbery walks—it soon forms a dense evergreen carpet, of so
compact a growth as to be almost impenetrable even to ground game.
In addition to the above-named plants, the following are well adapted
for giving shelter to game:—Dogwood, Hazel, Elder, Arbutus, Cotoneaster
of sorts, Juniper of sorts, _Pernettya mucronata_, _Rubus nutkanus_,
_Taxus adpressa_, _Photinia serrulata_, _Kalmia latifolia_, _Garrya
elliptica_, etc. These should be planted out in small groups—the more
valuable kinds in the most conspicuous position, such as alongside or
within view of woodland drives and shooting-roads.
=Protection from Rabbits=, etc.—It may seem somewhat absurd to speak
of planting coverts, and then to protect them from the depredations
of game; but that this is highly necessary for the first two years,
at least, is well known to all planters. Few of the shrubs treated
of in this paper are exempt from the attacks of hares and rabbits,
more especially when in a young state and newly transferred from the
nursery; and for this reason it is always found necessary to protect
them in some way or other until fairly started into growth and beyond
the reach of game. For this purpose wire netting is the cheapest
and most effectual preservative with which I am acquainted. The
netting should be about 4 ft. in height, not more than 1½ in. mesh,
and inserted in the ground 4 in., to prevent rabbits from working
underneath. It may be fixed to posts driven firmly into the ground at
a distance of 5 ft. apart along the line of fence. This precaution
against the depredations of game may not be necessary for all the
clumps, but it is especially so for those of laurustinus, barberry, and
laurel.
For the first two or three years after planting, the shrubs should be
kept free of grass and weeds, as this will encourage the plants to
start into growth more quickly and thrive much better than they can do
if the ground is impoverished and light and air excluded by weeds.
CHAPTER XIX
HEDGES: THEIR FORMATION AND MANAGEMENT
Strictly speaking, hedges are divided into two kinds—useful and
ornamental—the former being employed for keeping farm stock in bounds,
and the latter in the subdivision of private gardens and for lawn and
park purposes generally. Where the fences are intended purely for
protective purposes the thorn, beech, hornbeam or holly are the plants
usually employed, while for ornamental garden subdivisions almost any
shrub may be used, the choice of which will lie with the operator.
Amongst all the trees and shrubs that have been found suitable for
the climate of Britain, none equals the common whitethorn, or Quick,
for hedge-formation, where strength and shelter are points of first
consideration. The beech and hornbeam certainly can thrive better on
exposed and high-lying ground and where the soil is poor and thin, but
neither forms so durable a protection against farm stock as the thorn.
When properly treated the thorn is a fast grower, and as a fence plant
it is ornamental, smooth, stubborn, and long lived. It is also not at
all subject to disease, and is very readily propagated. Few soils come
amiss to the thorn—that is, if they are not overcharged with moisture,
but it delights in a rich hazelly loam.
(1) =Plantation Hedges—Preparation of the Ground and Planting.=—Thorough
preparation of the ground where live fences are formed should take
precedence of all other operations—indeed, nothing can repay the
planter more satisfactorily than the previous suiting of the land,
in the way of draining and trenching, to the plants intended to be
inserted.
In all cases we have found it well to have the ground along the line
of fence trenched to a depth of 2 ft., and about 3 ft. in width, and
a quantity of manure incorporated at the same time. If this can be
done some months before planting the thorns or other fence plants, so
much the better, as it gives time for the loosely upturned soil to get
mellowed and sweetened, as also for the manure to get well decomposed.
In all cases it may not be necessary to apply manure, but, where the
soil is at all poor, the addition of a quantity of well-rotted manure
has a wonderful effect in stimulating the quick into active and strong
growth. The vigorous and rapid growth of a hedge, when the soil has
been well worked and manured, is remarkable, and in all cases the
labour and outlay expended on the fence is amply repaid.
[Illustration: HEDGING TOOLS]
It is well to plant rather above than below the general ground level,
so that in trenching the soil a slight mound should be raised along
the intended line of fence, which will not only materially assist in
keeping the plants from excessive moisture, but aid in the cleaning and
general management of the hedge. Where superfluous moisture is present
in the soil the hedge-and-ditch system is to be recommended, which
consists in digging out a ditch parallel with the line on which it is
intended to place the fence. It should be 3 ft. deep, 5 ft. wide at
top, and 1 ft. at bottom, and the soil removed in so doing is thrown
upon that side where the hedge is to be planted, thus forming a mound,
or rather ridge, on which the plants are to be placed.
In wet soils such a ditch is indispensable, but, under ordinary
circumstances, it is to be condemned, and for the simple reasons that
it is expensive and rather against than in favour of the free growth of
the fence.
=Thorn or Quick.=—The best time to plant the whitethorn is just after
the fall of the leaf in autumn; but the operation is usually extended
from that time until early spring, though in the latter case perhaps
with less satisfactory results.
In selecting the plants a great amount of care is necessary, as also in
the lifting and after-planting. Four-year-old plants are best suited
for hedge-formation, and they should be stout of growth and well
rooted. The size of the plants is of more importance than the age, and
those with stems as thick as one’s finger are to be preferred to others
of greater height, but lank and small of stem. Frequent transplanting
while in the nursery border should have been paid attention to, as
then the roots are bushy and fibrous and well suited for planting out
permanently.
Great damage is frequently done to thorn plants by careless lifting,
and, worse still, by bundling the plants in lots ready for the planter.
This should never be tolerated, as it is quite evident that when tied
up in bundles and covered over with soil, the plants in the centre of
each bundle get dust-dry and fall a prey to the searching winds of
spring.
Plants should in all cases, where it is possible, be lifted and
replanted within the week, but, much better still—and this is readily
effected where a home nursery is on the estate—on the same or the
following day.
In planting, stretch a line along the centre of the prepared ground,
and close to the line take out a perpendicular trench with the spade of
sufficient size to allow of the roots of the plants being spread out
to their full extent. From 6 in. to 8 in. will be found a convenient
distance apart to place the thorns, and they should not be planted
deeper than they stood whilst in the nursery border, which will readily
be seen by the mark on the stems. A small quantity of fine soil should
now be placed next the roots, and this firmly trodden, the remainder
of the soil being added afterwards. Dibbling the plants is sometimes
recommended, but, in our own opinion, it is a dangerous practice and to
be avoided, the roots necessarily being thus confined to small space
and placed in an unnatural position. Planting in single line is in most
cases preferable to inserting in double line, as it is by the former
method that the strongest and most durable fences have been formed.
Some planters cut back the young thorns to within 2 in. of the ground,
and the practice, although not readily reconciled with physiological
principles, is to be recommended. It is unquestionable that headed-back
thorns shoot out with greater vigour, and become thicker, than such
as have been left untouched, but the fact that they are then greedily
devoured by ground game has somewhat caused the practice to fall into
disuse, at least where game is abundant and the cost of fencing cannot
be entertained.
The =Beech=, as a hedge-plant, must not be despised, being a rapid
grower on most soils, and soon forming a very valuable fence. In rich
soils it retains a great proportion of its leaves during winter, and
is, therefore, an excellent shelter-plant. It, however, lacks the
rigidity of the thorn, and for that reason is not very suitable for
planting where farm stock have access. It may be planted in a manner
similar to that recommended for the thorn, only the individual plants
should stand farther apart.
The =Hornbeam= makes a good live fence, and will grow readily in
any fairly good soil and not too exposed ground. It may be treated
similarly to the beech.
=Privet=—both the common and oval-leaved—have been largely used, either
alone or with other plants, in the formation of hedges, for which they
are peculiarly suitable. They, however, want stiffness, so as to be
able to cope with farm stock, and for this reason are principally used
in ornamental garden subdivisions.
=Gorse or Furze.=—Strikingly beautiful as well as useful hedges may be
formed of gorse. It is well adapted for planting on light dry or sandy
soils, or on the top of a dyke or sunk fence.
Seed sowing is to be recommended in the formation of gorse fences,
and after preparing and well working the soil, 1 lb. of seed to every
100 lineal yards will be found sufficient for sowing down. It should
be remembered that in order to keep the fence full and bushy, pruning
should take place immediately after flowering and before seeds are
produced.
Cutting over the hedge at ground level every third year will be very
beneficial to this fence.
(2) =Ornamental Hedges—Holly.=—This makes an excellent ornamental
fence, and it is occasionally though rarely used for plantation
purposes. The ground should be thoroughly prepared, and, if necessary,
enriched by a dressing of strong loam, and the plants inserted in
May. The holly can be planted when of almost any height, if previous
transplanting was attended to.
=Yew.=—For purposes similar to the latter, the yew is generally in use.
It may be planted at any time, but should be kept well watered until it
has become established.
=Laurustinus.=—As a flowering hedge for garden or lawn purposes few
shrubs are of greater value than the laurustinus, particularly in
maritime districts. In severe winters it suffers considerably, though
generally fresh growths are sent up from the root-stock. Pruning should
be carefully done, so that the flowering shoots are not cut away.
=Box.=—Very neat and serviceable garden fences are made of this shrub.
It grows freely and stands pruning well.
=Rosa rugosa= and =R. rubiginosa= (Sweet Briar).—Both these species of
rose have come greatly into favour for garden subdivisions, for which
they are peculiarly suitable. They make charming hedges, are of easy
growth, and stand pruning with impunity. Of course, where they are
wanted to flower great care in pruning is necessary.
=Laurel.=—Both the common and Colchic laurels make fairly good hedges,
but they are apt to get gappy by portions dying out. This can, however,
easily be remedied by filling up with others instead. They bear
trimming well.
=Aucuba japonica= forms a useful and ornamental hedge, stands pruning
well, and lasts for a long time.
=Berberis Darwinii= and =B. stenophylla= are both highly ornamental
hedge shrubs, and when not pruned too severely flower with great
freedom. Shortening the long shoots with a pocket-knife is best.
=Cleaning and Pruning.=—An annual cleaning of the ground alongside
hedges must never be neglected, as weeds rob the soil of its
nourishment, choke the young plants, and to a great extent prevent the
free access of rain to the roots of the hedge plants. The common hoe
is, for this purpose, to be recommended, and any weeds that cannot
be got at around the stems must be removed by the hand. Ivy, elder
and honeysuckle should all be treated as weeds, for they are highly
injurious to hedges, be these young or old.
Very little, if any, pruning or switching should be done till the third
year after the fence has been formed, and then only the longer twigs
cut back, so as to get by degrees a general uniformity of shape. The
switching-knife is alone to be recommended for pruning fences, shears
never making a clean cut, and pressing and loosening the bark at the
point where amputation took place. A well-sharpened switching-knife in
the hands of a dexterous hedger turns out beautiful and commendable
work.
Unless it be an annual cleaning and trimming, a well-formed hedge
should require but little attention for many years. Should it,
however, when old, begin to show signs of distress and become gappy,
a top-dressing of rich farmyard manure will go a great way towards
throwing fresh energy into the plants. This should be applied in
winter, and lightly forked in the following spring, and before growth
has commenced. Should gaps occur by reason of deaths in the old plants
these should be removed, and others of young growth substituted, the
soil at the same time being dug out and other fresh from a field or
roadside used instead. Great care should be exercised that the roots of
living plants are not injured whilst removing the dead and substituting
the live specimens. Specially-prepared plants and such as are unusually
stout and bushy should alone be used in hedge-repairing.
CHAPTER XX
SHRUBS FOR SHADY SITUATIONS
The list of procumbent or carpeting shrubs that have been found to
succeed when planted beneath the shade and drip of forest trees is by
no means a long one, and as the clothing of such bare places is often
a point of the greatest importance, particularly in park or ornamental
grounds, the following notes may prove useful. By careful manipulation
much may be done to carpet such places with suitable shrubs, but the
task in some instances is by no means an easy one, and must be set
about in a common-sense and practical way. Evidently deciduous trees
have an advantage over evergreen kinds in that with the extra light and
greater amount of surface dampness undergrowth succeeds better beneath
their shade.
The =common Ivy= is probably the best evergreen carpet for shade
planting with which we are acquainted. It runs about and roots freely,
soon covering a large space of ground with its neat, deep-green
foliage. Propagation is brought about either by means of cuttings or
suckers, and is simple and inexpensive.
The =Periwinkles= (_Vinca major_ and _V. minor_) are well adapted for
planting beneath our larger trees, where, unless the shade is very
dense, they succeed admirably, soon forming large breadths of evergreen
carpet and producing their deep blue flowers in abundance. They are
readily increased by layering or subdivision, and when once established
soon spread about unheeded.
The =St. John’s Wort= (_Hypericum calycinum_) can confidently be
recommended for planting as a ground covering beneath our larger trees.
It increases readily, and if occasionally cut over, shoots out all
the more freely and thickly. For the showy yellow flowers it is also a
desirable shrubby plant.
The =Mezereon= and =Spurge Laurel= (_Daphne Mezereum_ and _D.
Laureola_) are excellent, medium-sized shrubs for planting in shady
positions, where they not only succeed well, but flower freely. They
are both increased by layering.
=Euonymus Radicans Variegata= is a useful, procumbent shrub for
planting in the shade, and succeeds well in smoky localities.
The =Butcher’s Broom= (_Ruscus aculeatus_) grows with great freedom
beneath the densest shade of our forest trees, and being an evergreen
is to be recommended for such situations.
=Gaultheria Shallon= and =G. Procumbens= may also be recommended for
planting where the shade is not too dense; they both flower and fruit
freely, and are of neat procumbent growth.
Amongst taller growing subjects for planting in the shade, mention
may be made of the holly and yew, both of which thrive beneath
the shade and drip of forest trees and where they often assume a
dwarf, procumbent habit of growth. Two at least of the recent shrubs
introduced from China have just claims to be included in the list
of suitable species for planting in the shade. These are _Sarcoccos
humile_ and _S. ruscifolia_. They are of particularly neat growth, with
persistent leaves and bear yellowish-white flowers.
The =Common Ling= or =Heather=, =Blackberry=, and =Andromeda Catesbœi=
all succeed well in the shade of trees, particularly if the soil be
inclined to peat.
It frequently happens that the soil beneath large trees is thoroughly
exhausted, and that the small, fibrous rootlets are so abundant as
to render planting almost impossible. Under such conditions it is
advisable to first gently loosen the soil, without disturbing the
larger roots, and add a top-dressing of, say, three or four inches of
good friable loam. This, thoroughly incorporated with the existing
soil, will give the young plants a start and allow of their becoming
strong and established before the encroaching roots rob the ground of
its nourishment.
CHAPTER XXI
INSECT ENEMIES OF TREES
Whether viewed from a commercial or sylvicultural point of view, the
widespread damage caused to timber from insect attacks can scarcely
be overrated. The depredations in various parts of our own country,
particularly in young plantations, are bad enough, but when compared
with those of Europe and America they appear insignificant. In France
and Germany whole woods have been wiped out by insect pests, while the
Government of Bavaria were mulcted in something like £100,000 by the
destruction of its spruce forests. The United States fares no better,
for we find that over a period of ten years the amount of timber killed
and reduced in value was calculated at fully £10,000,000. The coffee
plantations of Ceylon suffered much from the attacks of a fungus, and
we could go on multiplying cases. In our own country the ravages of the
pine beetle and of the larch disease have caused incalculable damage;
indeed, in the latter case there is hardly a plantation of larch where
the presence of the fell disease cannot be distinctly traced, while the
pine beetle has ruined whole plantations both in England and Scotland.
Though the adult bark and wood-boring beetles do a great amount of
damage, yet that inflicted by the caterpillar or grub from the egg
is greater still, and in the case of fungi we have a typical example
of their destructive properties in the case of the well-known larch
disease.
The =Pine Beetle= (_Myelophilus {Hylurgus_} _piniperda_) is a dreaded
enemy to not a few species of Pinus, but particularly _P. sylvestris_,
_P. laricio_, _P. austriaca_ and _P. Strobus_. The injury done by this
beetle consists in its destruction of the leading shoots of the tree it
attacks. It enters by boring a hole into the side of the shoot until it
reaches the pith, after which its course is directed upwards, and an
exit made at the terminal bud. This tunnelling of the shoot so weakens
it that frequently during stormy weather it is broken across at the
point where the beetle entered. Not only are unhealthy trees attacked
by the pine beetle, but young and robust-growing specimens frequently
fall a prey to its insidious depredations.
June, July and August are the months when it is most commonly found.
The only remedy is to collect and burn the affected shoots—work that
requires to be done with the utmost care to prevent the escape of the
wary insect. Burning all brushwood in plantations is a great preventive.
The =Pine Weevil= (_Curculio_ {_Hylobius_} _Abietis_) is another
destructive insect, which differs from the former in waging its attacks
against the buds of the leaders and branches, as also by eating patches
of the bark here and there on the stems and branches. The various
species of Abies suffer most, but the pines are occasionally attacked
as well. It is always most destructive in young plantations growing on
the margins of old woods, and equally bad amongst trees that have been
planted on the site of a former pine plantation.
The beetle is about half an inch long, and nearly black. One remedy,
probably the best, is to place fresh pieces of pine bark on the ground,
beneath the infested trees. By shaking the trees and examining the
traps the following morning, many may be destroyed.
=Bostrichus typographus= is another pest of our woodlands, and may
frequently be seen, like fine white wool, spreading over the stem
and branches of the silver and other firs. It spreads with terrible
rapidity, first appearing in small patches here and there on the bole,
and particularly on the under sides of the branches. The tree infested
soon becomes unhealthy, and frequently dies off prematurely. Trees
growing in low-lying, heavy ground would seem to fall a first prey to
this insect.
=Bostrichus laricis= is nearly allied to the former, but its
devastations, which are, however, not very deadly, are principally
confined to the larch. It is usually known as the “larch blight.”
The =Pine Shoot Moths= (_Retinia buoliana_ and _R. turionella_) would
seem to be more numerous in this country than is generally supposed.
Quite lately I visited a large plantation of young Scotch fir, the
terminal buds of which were greatly injured by the caterpillars of
this elaborately-coloured moth. The moth lays its eggs at the base
of the buds, and into these the caterpillars enter by hollowing out
the centre, thus destroying their vitality and causing them to take
on a withered appearance and to feel soft and empty to the touch.
Trees infested by this insect resemble greatly in their stunted shoots
and exudation of resin such as have become a prey to the Pine beetle
(_Myelophilus piniperda_), only in the latter case it is the fresh
young shoot and not the bud that is attacked. The _Retinia_ would
seem, from all my notes and observations, to be most abundant in what
might be termed neglected fir plantations, that is, where the trees
have suffered from overcrowding, or from unfavourable conditions as to
soil, etc., and particularly when the wood is composed entirely of one
species. There is no method of dealing with large infested areas, for
the attacked trees have repeatedly been cut over and removed without
any seeming diminution in the numbers of the insect. One experiment
with a small infested corner has been rewarded with good results, viz.
the lighting of a fire to windward, and causing the smoke of coal tar
to pass over the infected area. This might be worth trying in the case
of fruit trees infested by particular insects.
The =Larch Miner= (_Coleophora laricella_).—Few, other than those
specially interested in tree diseases, have the remotest idea that the
yellow, withered appearance of many of our English larch plantations
is due to the larvæ of the above tiny moth. It usually attacks young
trees, say, from five to twenty years old, and although it may not kill
them out, yet the repeated onslaughts year after year tend to keep the
trees in an unhealthy condition, and so render them liable to other and
more deadly diseases.
Unfortunately the attacks of the larch miner are by no means confined,
as is usually supposed, to trees growing under unfavourable conditions,
for I have this season noticed in an unusually healthy, fast-growing
plantation in Sussex that almost every tree was more or less affected.
Certainly in another large extent of larch in Gloucestershire which I
examined lately, where nine-tenths of the trees were being ruined by
the _Peziza_, the larch miner was very abundant; but, I think, that
young trees, whatever may be their state of health, suffer alike,
although where hard-wooded trees form a portion of the crop the larch
certainly suffers less than when grown in pure woods. The moth lays its
eggs at the end of June on the needles of the larch; the caterpillar
mining into and feeding upon the interior of the needle causes it to
turn faded and yellow. It lives in the tube thus formed during the
winter, changing to a pupa, and ultimately to a moth. It is a most
difficult matter in the case of this insect, as, indeed, of all others
that are fairly abundant, to suggest a remedy, and I have looked
over and examined larch plantations that are differently situated in
many respects to find out under what condition the attacks are most
persistent, but with little or no success—healthy and unhealthy, native
or Tyrolese, faring alike when grown as a pure crop.
Where the larches are intermixed with hard-wooded trees—sycamore, oak
and beech—the attacks are certainly less frequent, as I have noticed
in a number of cases. Trees growing at high altitudes do not seem to
suffer less than those only a few feet above sea-level, and this point
I have paid particular attention to.
Whether the wounds caused by this insect will serve as a nidus for the
spores of _Peziza Willkommii_ has yet to be determined, but special
importance should be attached to all larch-feeding insects, and their
depredations minimized to as great an extent as possible.
The =Pine Sawfly= (_Lophyrus Pini_).—Fortunately, this insect is not
abundant in the British Isles, though on the Continent the damage it
does in the pine forests is by no means inconsiderable. The insect
may readily be recognized by its wide, flattish body, and usually
dark appearance. Having attained to full size in the trees, they form
cocoons among the foliage or on the stems, and remain in this condition
until the following spring, when, in April or May, the perfect insects
make their appearance. The male is considerably smaller than the
female, while the full-grown caterpillar, which is of a greenish-yellow
colour, with a row of black spots on either side, is about an inch
long. The remedial measures are not at all easy, especially when
a large number of trees are attacked, but single specimens may be
entirely cleared by shaking the caterpillars into a sheet placed
beneath the tree.
[Illustration: (_a_) WILLOW BEETLE (_Phyllodecta vulgatissima_), AND
(_b_) ITS LARVA.]
The =Larch Aphis= (_Adelgis laricis_) and =Giant Sirex= (_Sirex
gigas_) are both, more or less, harmful to the larch. The latter is a
formidable and splendid insect, which is, however, not very abundant in
this country.
Generally felled trees, or such as are somewhat sickly, are chosen by
the female in which to lay her eggs. These are deposited beneath the
bark by means of the powerful ovipositor, and in course of time the
whitish cylindrical maggots make an appearance, and with their strong
jaws form large borings in the affected tree.
Cutting down and burning infested trees is the only practical remedy.
The =Willow Beetle= (_Phyllodecta vulgatissima_) causes considerable
damage to osier plantations, and would appear to be greatly on the
increase of late years. Much damage has been done to osier holts in
various parts of the country, and in northern Ireland the ravages of
this beetle were particularly noticeable during the past five years.
The insect, which is metallic green or blue in colour, passes the
winter in the adult state, at which time it may be found amongst refuse
of the osier beds, such as the heaps of bark, and also at the base
of old stools and beneath stones or other shelter. The larvæ have a
tough yellowish cuticle with conspicuous brown bristles, the head and
prothorax being black and hard. The eggs are laid on the undersides of
the leaves in spring, and when the larvæ are hatched they feed on the
leaves, eating holes quite through to the upper surface. Burning all
rubbish in the osier beds is to be recommended, and spraying with Paris
green or lead arsenate has been found useful.
The =Larch Sawfly= (_Nematus Erichsonii_).—This is a species of
sawfly the larvæ of which bear considerable resemblance to those of
the caterpillar of the pine sawfly, and also to that of the better
known gooseberry caterpillar. The larvæ are about three-quarters of
an inch long, and possess twenty feet. From July to August they feed
on the leaves of the larch, and a plantation that has been attacked
presents a partially leafless condition with quantities of the brown
cylindrical cocoon cases lying amongst the grass beneath the trees.
There have been several notable instances in which larch plantations
have suffered severely from the attacks of this insect, and in northern
England, particularly Cumberland, whole areas of plantation have been
attacked. Burning all brushwood and grass beneath the trees in infected
plantations is probably the best means of lessening the numbers of this
dread insect in our larch plantations.
The =Spruce Gall Aphis= (_Chermes abietis_).—This is a common insect,
and one that renders many fine young spruce trees very unsightly by
reason of the cone-like excrescences that are formed by the action of
the insect on the shoots of the infested specimen. The formation of
this excrescence is brought about by the female aphis piercing with
her beak, or sucker, one of the buds, and drawing off the sap, the
consequence being an unusual growth at that part.
When the young larvæ appear, they also, by piercing the gall, extract
the juices, and the gall enlarging soon causes the larvæ to become
embedded at the bases of the leaves, which, by this time, have become
curiously malformed. The insects are scarcely one-tenth of an inch long.
[Illustration: ELM TREE DESTROYER]
A. Entrance of Parent Tube.
B. Insect in Tube.
C. An imperfect Tube arrested from want of nourishment.
D. Scolytus Destructor. Natural size.
E. Lateral Tubes with Larvæ, some changing to the Pupa state.
The only remedy is to collect the cone-like excrescences and have them
destroyed, except in the case of badly infested trees, which should be
cut down and burned.
The =Elm Tree Destroyer= (_Scolytus destructor_) is about one-fifth
of an inch long, stout and cylindrical, and usually confines its
depredations to the elm.
In the beginning of June this beetle bores into the inner bark, where
it forms galleries, along the margins of which are laid the eggs.
Cutting down and burning badly-attacked trees is the best remedy,
but promoting exuberant health of the infested specimens by means of
enriching the soil has been attended with promising results.
The =Goat Moth= (_Cossus ligniperda_) is most frequently found on the
willow, oak, lime and other trees. Being not only one of our largest
native moths, but also one of the most destructive, its ravages are
much dreaded, the holes or tunnels made by the moth being of large
size—large enough to admit the little finger. Filling up the tunnels
with a mixture of soot, lime and cow manure is an excellent remedy.
The =Lackey Moth= (_Clisiocampa neustria_), so called from the gay
colours of the caterpillar, is another destructive woodland pest,
eating wholesale the leaves of the oak, elm, beech, poplar and most
fruit trees.
In April and May the caterpillars are hatched, when the leaves are
just unfolding. They form a nest or web of silken hairs, generally
amongst the smaller branches, in which they live during the day,
sallying forth in the evening to feed on the tender foliage. Being very
plentiful, they are usually difficult to deal with, but hand-picking
and destroying the cocoons are the only practicable methods of meeting
the evil.
The =Winter Moth= (_Cheimatobia brumata_) and the =Lime Looper Moth=
(_Hybernia defolaria_).—The caterpillars of both these moths are very
destructive to the leaves of elms, limes and willows, but particularly
to the buds of the apple tree.
When full grown they descend to the ground, where they cover themselves
and become chrysalides, from which the moths appear from October to
December.
Being almost wingless, it is by no means difficult to prevent their
ascending the trees by painting a band of any sticky substance around
the stems of the trees that it is expected they might attempt to crawl
up.
[Illustration: A. Larva of the Cossus Ligniperda, three years old,
ready to change into the Chrysalis state.]
[Illustration:
A. Cossus Moth.
B. Chrysalis from which the perfect Insect has escaped.
C. Cluster of Eggs.
D. Magnified Ovum.
THE GOAT MOTH]
The =Red Spider= (_Tetranychus_).—In hot and dry summers trees suffer
much from this member of the mite family. Limes and poplars, as also
many other trees, are greatly injured, the foliage turning to a russety
brown colour, and falling off long before the usual time. There are
several remedies, such as fumigating and spraying with a solution of
soft soap, but none of these are applicable to a plantation of trees,
or even a single specimen of large size.
The =Thorn Fly= (_Aphis Cratægi_) attacks whole hedges or brakes of
Quick, especially those in the nursery border; as a rule, the younger
and more healthy plants first fall a prey to its depredations.
Sponging with tobacco water, or almost any of the prescribed solutions
will rapidly exterminate the fly; but such work is laborious when a
large brake or long hedge of the thorn has to be gone over.
The =Cockchafer= (_Melolontha vulgaris_) is usually pretty abundant,
and does most damage by eating the leaves of the sycamore, beech, oak,
cherry and many other trees. It will also eat the roots of most young
trees, but those of pine in particular.
The insect is about 1¼ in. long, and of a chestnut-brown colour on the
upper part of the body, while the head and some other parts of the body
are of a bronzy green, and thickly covered with yellowish-white hairs.
In April and May the eggs are laid in a hole in the ground about 5 in.
deep, and the grubs are hatched in July. They are of a dirty-white
colour and much wrinkled. In this state, however, they do but little
harm; but, after having changed their skins and remained in a torpid
state during winter, come to the surface in spring and eat the roots
of almost any plant that comes in their way. They again burrow deeper
at the approach of winter, coming to the surface again in spring, and,
when full grown, are about 1½ in. long, and almost ½ in. in diameter.
The perfect insects do not live more than about twelve days, and are
easily known by their heavy, awkward flight towards the evening.
The =Laburnum Moth= (_Cemiostoma laburnella_) is fairly abundant—in
England, at least; and, in some instances, every leaf of a tree has
been eaten almost wholesale by the caterpillars of this pretty moth.
The insect is about one-eighth of an inch in length, and three-tenths
of an inch across the fully expanded wing. It is of a silvery-white
colour.
The greenish-grey caterpillars are about ¼ in. long.
By burning the attacked leaves great numbers of the caterpillars may
be destroyed, while, by shaking the trees in May and August, the moths
will fly out, and may be caught in a butterfly net.
[Illustration: WOOD LEOPARD MOTH
(_Zeuzera æsculi_)
(Very destructive to trees, particularly around London)]
=Wood Leopard Moth= (_Zeuzera æsculi_).—The caterpillar of this
beautiful moth is very destructive to the beech, ash, birch, elm,
walnut, privet, etc., which it bores into, eating and living on
the wood. Usually young trees or the branches of old specimens are
attacked, and the tunnelling is confined in the former either to the
pithy centre or the soft wood near the bark. The moths appear about
mid-July, and the female, by piercing the bark with her powerful
ovipositors, deposits her eggs, one in each hole. Three years are
required for the caterpillar to arrive at maturity when it is nearly
2 in. long. Both in form and colour the leopard moth is particularly
elegant, the head and thorax being covered with a thick white pile, the
body with a black down, fringed with white at each joint. The wings
are white with yellowish-brown veins, a row of rounded bluish spots
running between every two.
By stuffing a piece of tow in gas tar, or placing cyanide of potassium
in the hole and closing the aperture, the caterpillar may be
overpowered and destroyed.
A bent wire has often been successfully used in dislodging the
caterpillar.
The =Holly Fly= (_Phytomyza aquifolia_).—The foliage of the holly is
frequently very much disfigured by the grubs of the holly fly, which
burrow beneath the upper skin of the leaves, feeding on the internal
substance. This imparts a blistered and discoloured appearance, which,
in the case of ornamental varieties, is anything but desirable.
Probably no great damage to the infested trees is brought about, but
the wholesale destruction of the leaves, as is often the case, cannot
but weaken the plant.
In May and June the flies make their appearance, and lay their eggs
beneath the upper skin of the leaf, from which the grubs, about
one-fifth of an inch long, are hatched. These work their way beneath
the skin of the leaves, forming small tracks of a more or less circular
shape, thus causing the large and unsightly blisters. They quit the
leaves about March, by making small holes in the skin of the leaf, and
afterwards become chrysalides. The fly is small and inconspicuous.
Picking off and destroying affected leaves, or crushing the grub by
pinching the blisters are the only ways of lessening the attacks.
The =Oak Leaf Roller Moth= (_Tortrix viridana_).—The widespread
destruction caused to oak-woods in almost every part of the country
by the caterpillars of this little moth would seem to be on the
increase from year to year. But it is not the oak alone that suffers,
for numbers of the hornbeam and beech are in an equally pitiable
condition. Having closely watched this insect for several years, mainly
with the view of striving to keep it in check or devise some means
of destruction, I have come to the conclusion that a few individual
trees may, at considerable expense, be rid of the pest, but in the
case of whole woodlands artificial treatment is quite out of the
question. Many observers are under the impression that the caterpillar
is most abundant where the trees grow closest together, and when we
consider that both wind and rain destroy numbers of these, the fact of
isolated trees, which, consequently, are most exposed to storms, being
comparatively free from attack is not to be wondered at. So far as we
know at present, the only way to diminish in any appreciable degree
the numbers of this insect is by encouraging as much as possible its
enemies.
The rook, jackdaw, starling, thrush and sparrow help immensely in
destroying the caterpillars, and the occupants of a rookery will
frequently in a few hours clear the pest from the trees over a
considerable area of woodland. The same has been noted with regard to
the starling, and I have frequently seen the trees over an infested
area almost black with this particular bird when in the act of feeding
on the caterpillars.
In support of this recommendation it may be stated that insects are far
less numerous in the forests of St. Germain, Senart and Fontainebleau
than in the Bois de Boulogne, where, of course, small birds are scarcer.
Sometimes with the oak leaf roller moth its excessive number proves
the means of its extinction, the foliage being devoured before the
caterpillars are fully fed; while, as is usual at the season of attack,
parasitic flies and ichneumons destroy them wholesale, and a box of
caterpillars sent to me the other day revealed the fact that each one
had succumbed to the attacks of one of these enemies.
The life history of this moth is full of interest, and the curious
manner in which it rolls up the leaves is well worthy of study.
The =Felted Beech Coccus= (_Cryptococcus Fagi_).—Judging from the
numerous specimens of the beech coccus that are being forwarded to me
for identification, and the inquiries as to how this insect pest may
be dealt with, its presence in almost every part of the country is
indicated. It was only in 1862 that Dr. Balfour reported the presence
of this coccus in Scotland, and I remember well how the beautiful
beech hedges on the Penicuik Estate, Mid-Lothian, were ravaged by the
insect in 1875. In Germany, however, the beech coccus was noticed as
early as 1849. It is probable that the beech coccus also extends to
the Weymouth pine, as at Keston, Lord Derby’s estate in Kent, several
of these trees were badly affected with an insect that appeared to me
identical with this pest, and other instances of the Weymouth pine
being similarly attacked have been recorded. Since the appearance
of the insect in Scotland it has spread southwards rapidly, but it
is only of late years that its ravages have been felt severely, and
that owners of woodlands have been driven to do everything in their
power to combat its injurious effects. I think I have nowhere seen
the insect so abundant as on the Burnham beeches, which I visited in
company with several members of the Royal Horticultural Society at the
request of the Lord Mayor and the Corporation of the City of London.
Here, speaking broadly, all the trees are affected in a greater or less
degree, independent altogether of the age or health of the trees.
Amongst the beautiful beech woods of Hertfordshire, where the timber
produced commands a higher price than that from any other station
in Britain excepting the Chiltern Hills, the trees are suffering
severely. After a careful inspection of many beech woods, I am at a
loss to account for the spread of this insect. Usually, in the case
of injurious forest insects, the presence of dead and dying wood and
the general health of the plantations have much to do with the attack,
but this would not appear to be the cause in the case of the beech
coccus. Even old and diseased trees do not appear to suffer more than
the young and healthy specimens, and at Burnham some of the youngest
and fastest growing specimens were by far the worst affected, appearing
in parts as if coated with drifted snow. Neither would soil appear to
have anything to do with the spread of the insect, as on chalky, sandy
and loamy soils, as well as on shale rock, the trees are all more or
less affected. I cannot say that unhealthy trees are more liable to
be attacked than vigorous ones, for I have observed diseased trees to
be sometimes quite free from the coccus, whilst healthy specimens in
the immediate neighbourhood were badly infested. This was particularly
noticeable on some park trees on two estates that I visited lately; in
each instance the majestic boles rose to a height of fully 90 ft. and
contained about 100 cubic ft. of wood. At one time I had an idea that
beech trees when grown too thickly were most liable to be attacked,
but more extensive observations have disproved the hypothesis. By some
it has been suggested that the drainage of ground on which the beech
is growing will facilitate the spread of the insect by bringing about
an unhealthy state of the trees. To some extent this has been noticed
at Burnham, and particularly in Gloucestershire, where a lake had been
formed contiguous to a beech plantation. In another instance that came
under my notice the burrowing of rabbits to an unusual extent was
blamed for the appearance of the insect and the gradual death of the
trees, the soil in this case being sand and gravel. It is a strange
fact, too, that a badly infested tree may be standing amongst others
that are perfectly free from the attack. Under a magnifying glass the
insect appears of a yellowish colour, irregularly globular in shape,
and almost transparent. It is thickly covered over by a secretion
from the body, which looks like fine waxen-white threads or cotton
wool, which effectually screens the insect from observation. With its
proboscis it sucks up the juices, which are readily reached through
the thin, smooth bark. When badly attacked, the foliage becomes meagre
and has a burnt appearance, then the tips of the branches, and finally
whole branches die off. Afterwards the bark becomes dry and cracks,
usually longitudinally, falling off in flakes with the death of the
tree. The timber of trees that have been killed by the coccus is
dry, short-grained, and by no means comparable with that of healthy
specimens. From whatever cause, the presence of the insect in our
plantations is much to be deplored, and already many fine old trees
in different parts of the country have succumbed to the attack. It is
a curious fact that certain trees fall victims to the attack of this
insect very rapidly, often in the short space of two years, while
others of equal age and vigour, and, as far as can be seen, similarly
situated, live for many years. Fully grown trees are, in my opinion,
more liable to be killed quickly than younger specimens.
As regards remedies, these can only conveniently be applied to
single specimens and are scarcely practicable on a large scale. That
success has, however, attended the application of certain remedies I
am quite convinced, for several valuable ornamental trees on a lawn
in Buckinghamshire that were badly affected by the pest are now,
twelve months after being treated, quite free from the insect, and do
not appear to have suffered in consequence. In this case the remedy
was simple, and consisted merely in scrubbing the tree stems where
affected with a stiff brush dipped in an emulsion of soft soap, this
being rubbed well into all crevices of the bark. Only one application
was given, but as the trees were nearly 100 ft. high with many large
limbs, which also showed the presence of the coccus, the work took a
considerable time. However, the results well repaid the expense of
labour. Another excellent remedy is to mix together equal portions of
paraffin and soft soap, and when required for use add twenty times
their bulk of hot water, stirring all well together. This may be
applied either with a scrubbing brush or syringed on to the affected
parts. Other measures of a more drastic nature have been found to
be beneficial, but those given are probably the simplest and best.
Three or four handfuls of lime to a bucket of water is an excellent
application, the only drawback being the unpleasant colour imparted to
the trees. This is a simple remedy, and may be applied with a painter’s
or scrubbing brush. It has saved many trees on an estate near London.
=Wireworms.=—These occasionally do a great deal of damage in beds of
seedling trees, particularly conifers, and in some instances they
attack and destroy the seeds before germination. In the case of
young conifers they are gnawed completely through just above or at
the ground level, the beds in many instances being strewn with the
cut-over plants. _Abies nobilis_ and _A. Nordmanniana_ suffer to a
great extent, and I have frequently been at my wit’s end to put a stop
to the repeated depredations. In the case of a newly-formed nursery or
freshly-made-up seed-beds the attack of the wireworm is always most
pronounced. In the case of fresh nursery ground, paring off and burning
a couple of inches of the top soil in the autumn has been attended with
excellent results, as has also dressing the ground with gas lime. When
seedlings are attacked, hand-picking, with the use of sliced carrots,
mangold or potatoes, varied with pieces of oilcake as a bait, are to be
recommended. Dressing the seeds with red lead is very advantageous to
prevent birds and mice from attacking freshly-sown quantities. Injury
from wireworm is not likely to cause any serious consequences after the
first year’s growth of the plants, especially if the ground has been
kept clean and free from weeds during the egg-laying season in June.
[Illustration: WITCH’S BROOM ON THE WILLOW (SUMMER APPEARANCE)]
The above are only a few of the many insects that injure our forest
trees; but those treated of are the most familiar to the forester, and
those whose attacks he has most frequently to wage war against. Willow
trees all over London are suffering severely from attacks of a mite
insect. It is known as the “Witch’s Broom” on the Willow (_Eriophyes
triradiatus_).
Remedial measures are frequently of little avail, more particularly
when a whole wood or plantation is attacked; but with single specimens
the numbers may readily be lessened by the methods suggested.
[Illustration: WITCH’S BROOM ON THE WILLOW (WINTER ASPECT)]
Keeping the woodlands free of dead and dying trees and branches is a
preventive of insect attacks that should never be neglected.
As showing the injury that can be inflicted on our forest trees by some
of these insect pests, the following cases may be mentioned:—
During fifteen years (between 1853-68) the spruce in East Prussia,
Poland and Russia was killed over an area of 7,000 square German miles;
while in the Bavarian forests, the loss to the Revenue in one year was
£40,000.
In both cases the destructive insect _Liparis monacha_ was the cause of
injury.
CHAPTER XXII
FUNGUS GROWTH ON TREES
Some fungi attack living wood, some dead, and some both; and, while the
majority are found growing on the stem, others attack the twigs, leaves
or root. They are of all sizes, from the almost microscopical to the
beefsteak fungus, which often exceeds a couple of feet in diameter.
Some are jelly-like in consistency, others leathery or almost woody
in texture; and while certain kinds spring up and disappear in a few
days, others remain intact on the tree stem for several years. In
shape, too, they vary considerably, from the curious Jew’s ear fungus,
which greatly resembles the human organ, to the giant puff-ball, that
sometimes measures four feet in circumference. Then the cup-shaped
and parasol fungi are appropriately named, while the flat, shelf-like
arrangement of a species that frequents the oak and elm has interested
many a casual observer. Excepting perhaps green, they are found of
almost all colours from dull brown to the brightest crimson, while
beautifully spotted and mottled kinds are not uncommon.
Healthy trees growing under normal conditions are little affected by
fungi, whereas such as are predisposed to infection, by unsuitable
soil, excessive drought or dampness, injury by accident or otherwise—in
fact, those in a weakened condition however brought about—are, of
course, far more liable to attacks. Though certain species of fungi
only attack dead and decomposing wood, and are, therefore, the
consequence and not the cause of disease, there are others, fortunately
fewer in number, that attack healthy living trees and are the direct
cause of disease and death. The prevention and extermination of fungus
pests is by no means an easy matter, but by keeping the woods free from
dead and dying trees and branches, and by giving immediate attention to
outbreaks of the malady, much harm may be averted.
[Illustration: LARCH CANKER]
In the following notes, only the most serious cases are dealt with, or,
in other words, such fungi referred to as are commonly met with and
cause most damage to our woodland trees.
=Larch Disease.=—In all probability the larch disease or larch canker
owes its origin to the minute spores formed in the fructification of
the now well-known fungus—_Peziza Willkommii_. It has been pretty
conclusively proved that these spores can only find a footing where
the rind of the bark has become in some way injured, such as might be
occasioned by the puncture of an insect, by wind, frost or from many
other causes. The spores send down their germ tubes into the cambium,
between the bark and the wood, where the moisture and nourishment
afforded causes rapid development of the fungus. This soon spreads to
the cells of the wood, and the annual layers either entirely cease to
grow, or become disorganized and crippled in growth, causing a hollow
appearance of the stem at the point of attack. The surrounding bark,
by its attempts to heal over the wound, causes a thickened or burly
appearance of the trunk, thus imparting to affected trees the cankered,
swollen and distorted look that is so distinguished a characteristic.
The disease appears in this country on the larch, both common and
Tyrolese, at all stages of growth up to thirty years, but rarely after
that age. I have examined a plantation of only four years’ growth sadly
infested by the _Peziza_ whereas, in other cases, the trees may be
fully twenty years old before being attacked.
=Cause.=—Under what conditions of growth the larch is most susceptible
to the _Peziza_ is still a matter of vague uncertainty, but there can
be little doubt that an enfeebled constitution, as fully explained in
the article on the larch “Trees for Economic Planting”, aided by our
peculiarly erratic climate, has much to answer for. The variableness
of our spring weather is, no doubt, one of the predisposing causes of
disease, for, although no degree of frost experienced in this country
can injure the tree when leafless, yet few are more sensitive when in
young foliage.
Bearing on the subject of the larch disease, I have communications
from almost every part of the country, and have personally visited
and examined many of the worst infested plantations, particularly
in England and Wales. Soil, if we exclude peaty, would seem to have
little or nothing to do with encouraging the disease, as I have found
it equally virulent on dry, sandy and heavy damp soils, but worse
on chalk. Curiously enough, the disease is hardly known in the peat
bogs of Ireland, and there the rainfall is excessive. It is equally
strange that it first made its appearance in the Eastern and drier
parts of England, and gradually proceeded to the more humid West. I
have, however, noticed it in certain low-lying still, and damp portions
of some woodlands, and where frosts would be most prevalent, but such
cases are not general.
=Remedy.=—Several remedies have been more or less successfully tried
with a view to getting rid of the disease on trees, such as by cutting
and scraping out the injured portions, and applying a suitable
dressing; but such remedies, although suited for single specimens,
cannot be applied to a whole area of infested trees.
Under exceptionally favourable conditions, I have found the larch to
outgrow the disease, though the cankered, swollen stems are never
afterwards of great value for constructive purposes. Prevention in the
present case is undoubtedly the best measure, for when once it has made
headway, the larch disease is most difficult to cope with. By planting
only sound, healthy trees, with uninjured roots in the most suitable
soils and situations, and retaining these in as healthy a condition as
possible, can we guard against attacks of the disease. Hardwoods mixed
with the larch are to be recommended.
_Polyporus squamosus_ attacks the elm and other hard-wooded trees and
rapidly brings about decay. It is one of our commonest species on
diseased trees.
The =Sycamore Fungus= (_Rhytisma acerinum_).—Every one interested in
trees must be familiar with the conspicuous black, pitch-like spots
which so mar the appearance of sycamore leaves. These are due to the
above-named fungus which, appearing as small yellowish spots on the
undersides of the leaves towards the end of June, gradually increase
in size and intensity of colour until they attain to fully half an
inch in diameter and are inky black, with a margin of dirty yellow.
The attacked portion of the leaf becomes wrinkled and much thickened
in texture, while all the affected foliage drops off prematurely.
After lying on the ground during the winter, the thread-like spores
are produced in large quantities at the time when the foliage of the
sycamore is appearing in May and June. The sycamore is not the only
tree affected by this fungus, for the Norway Maple and our native _Acer
campestre_ are equally liable to attack, and have in some instances
suffered very severely from this cause. The fungus is becoming more
plentiful, and it disfigures the maple and sycamore leaves to a wide
extent.
[Illustration: POLYPORUS SQUAMOSUS (ON ELM TREE)]
_Rhytisma punctata_ may at once be distinguished from the above species
by the many small black spots studded thickly together, which combine
to form the large conspicuous blotches for which affected trees are
remarkable. Both species are sometimes found on the same leaf. As the
attacks of this fungus continue from year to year, and cause almost
every leaf to drop off prematurely, the health of the trees is greatly
impaired, and they become an easy prey to the still more destructive
coral spot fungus, _Nectria cinnabarina_. By burning the leaves
affected with _Rhytisma_ before the spores are liberated in spring, the
spread of the fungus is prevented in a simple and effective manner. The
sycamore fungus is very plentiful on trees around London.
The canker of hard-wooded trees is brought about by one of the Nectria
(_N. ditissima_), and is very common in every part of the country,
affecting the oak, beech, ash, sycamore and fruit trees generally. The
ash perhaps suffers most, the timber turning black and being quite
unfitted for structural purposes. It is strictly parasitical, growing
on wounded portions of the stem and branch, and spreads with great
rapidity, attacking trees of all ages. We have known the trees in a
plantation of ash to be quite destroyed by this canker, which attacks
most freely those growing on wet, sour land. This should be a warning
to planters to avoid such soil.
The =Red-rot Fungus= (_Fomes annosus_ or _Trametes radiciperda_)
attacks the roots of several species of pine, particularly the Scotch,
Corsican and Weymouth, as also the Spruce and Silver Fir. It is
probably the most destructive of the family, attacking living roots and
spreading rapidly from tree to tree. The trees, when affected, quickly
turn sickly and die, the wood becoming spongy and of a brownish colour,
with distinct black spots. The only remedy is to take out affected
trees and burn them root and branch, replanting the ground with
beech or elm. Though one of the most destructive fungi in coniferous
woodlands, its attacks are by no means confined to these alone, since
it is found on the roots of several hard-wooded species, such as the
filbert, hazel, birch and beech. Quite recently a nut plantation in
Kent suffered severely from the attacks of this fungus, whole lines of
trees being killed outright before the cause was detected. It spreads
quickly underground from tree to tree, and unless eradicated, as it
may easily be by uprooting affected trees and carefully destroying the
mycelium, much damage may result.
The =White-rot Fungus= (_Fomes igniarius_) is usually found on
hard-wooded trees, and takes possession of wounds that may have been
occasioned by the accidental breaking of a branch or stem injury. Oak
trees suffer most from the attacks of this fungus, which is often as
large as a foot across, and of a brownish colour. It is named igniarius
on account of the inner surface being used as tinder, when prepared
with saltpetre, especially in the old days of flint and steel. By
removing the fungus and attending to the wound by cleaning away all
dead and dying matter, and coating with tar, much benefit will ensue.
The =Leaf-shedding Fungus= or =Pine-leaf Scurf= (_Lophodermium
pinastre_) is a well-known and widely distributed species, and is
usually found on the Scotch and Austrian Pines. The leaves, when
attacked, wither suddenly and fall off, the fungus being most prevalent
after unusually dry weather, or in early spring succeeded by a frosty
winter. It occurs both as a saprophyte on dead pine leaves and a
parasite on the living foliage. We have been most successful in
combating the attacks and preventing the spread of the pest by spraying
the affected parts with “Bordeaux mixture.” Young trees under ten
years of age are most commonly attacked, and when this occurs in the
nursery borders, the plants should be rooted out and burned. On several
Scottish and English estates, thousands of Scotch Pines have been
killed out by the attacks of the leaf-shedding fungus.
One of the commonest fungi on old stumps is =Agaricus melleus=. It has
no particular host, being found alike on coniferous and hard-wooded
trees, and on both root and stem. Known as the honey fungus, and
edible, this toadstool is about three inches in diameter, and of a
yellowish-brown or rusty colour. It spreads with great rapidity both
in the soil and between the bark and wood of the affected tree. The
only remedy is digging out and destroying the fungus, and, in the case
of healthy young trees, collecting and burning the mycelium.
Next to the larch canker, one of the most destructive diseases
of forest trees is caused by attacks of the =Bladder-rust= or
=Cluster-cup= (_Peridermium piniacicola_). It is a wound fungus and
attacks almost every species of pine, the Scotch in particular,
especially when the trees are growing on light, poor soils. Young trees
up to, say, twenty years old are most commonly attacked by this fungus,
which appears like blisters, emitting bright reddish-coloured spores.
Rooting up and burning all affected trees is the best remedy.
[Illustration: POLYPORUS SULPHUREUS (ON WHITE POPLAR)]
_Polyporus sulphureus_ attacks many species of trees—yew, poplar, etc.
CHAPTER XXIII
BARKING OAK
Previous to the war the price of oak bark—about £2 10_s._ per
ton—rendered it questionable whether from a purely financial point of
view the operations of stripping and harvesting should be undertaken.
Now, however, with bark at fully three times that figure, the operation
is to be recommended.
The period of bark-stripping and harvesting is one of the most anxious
seasons of the year with the forester, as the quality of the bark is
so largely dependent upon the weather during the time that intervenes
between the stripping and stacking, or delivery, and not less so
upon the carrying out of the work at the proper time, to secure easy
and expeditious peeling. In most cases the time when the bud is just
expanding into leaf is that which gives the greatest weight of bark of
the best quality, with the smallest amount of labour. By deferring the
work, even for a few days, there is often a loss in weight amounting to
as much as 10 per cent., and a great deterioration in quality.
Even in the most favoured situations it is seldom that the season
for stripping extends beyond twenty-eight days. The advantages of
early stripping are so well known that any comment on the subject is
unnecessary; suffice it to say that, immediately the bark commences to
“run” freely, no time should be lost in making a start, and the work
should be prosecuted with vigour and dispatch until completed.
The proper time to commence barking cannot, however, be fixed with
any amount of certainty, much depending on the season, whether early
or late, as well as on the district of the country in which the
operation is to be performed. During ordinary seasons, and in most
parts of England, bark-stripping commences during the third week in
April and continues for about a month, or until such time as the trees
are in full leafage, whereas in some parts of Scotland, especially the
north, the operation is frequently nearly a month later. No mistake
can, however, arise as to the right time to start barking in any
locality, as in all cases the period when the bud is first bursting
into leaf will be found the proper time for felling to insure easy
stripping and the best quality of bark. As the season of bark-stripping
is, therefore, of short duration, every preparation should be made
beforehand—trees marked and numbered, tools in readiness, and squads
arranged—so that an early start may be made, as, by deferring the work
beyond the time stated above, there is not only a perceptible loss in
weight, but considerable deterioration in the quality of bark as well.
Elaborate directions regarding the arrangements of squads and tools
to be used are unnecessary, as almost every district has its own
peculiarities in this way. The tools generally in use are heavy axes
and the cross-cut saw for felling, hand-bills and saws for pruning,
peeling-irons or chisels for removing the bark, scrapers for removing
moss, and light wooden mallets for beating refractory bark or such as
cannot be removed by the peeling-irons alone.
Previously to felling the trees a man or stout lad is sent before,
who removes the bark from the root upwards for a distance of 2 ft. or
3 ft.; this not only prevents its being injured when laying in and
felling the tree, but is convenient for after-stripping as well. When
the stools are intended for reproduction great care is necessary to
avoid tearing or loosening the bark from the roots. After being thus
prepared the trees are felled in the usual manner, those under 6 in. in
diameter being cut with the axe; above that size it is found an economy
of time and timber to fell with the cross-cut saw. Following in the
rear of the cutters should be a squad of men, to clear the trunk and
larger limbs of all branches down to 1 in. in diameter, leaving the
limbs to be peeled as part of the tree.
Heavy timber and large branches are usually peeled where they fall,
but it will be found convenient to have the smaller trees and branches
carried out to some open space adjoining the stacking ground, and
peeled while one end is supported by means of two forked sticks placed
against each other. When the bark of small branches cannot readily be
removed by the peeling-iron, a smooth and flat stone is brought into
use, beside which the peeler sits, and with one hand holds the branch
on the stone, moving it along from one end to the other, at the same
time applying the mallet with the other hand until the bark becomes
loosened from the wood. Here it may be well to issue a caution against
a too frequent use of the mallet, which should never be brought into
request when the bark can be otherwise removed from the wood, as all
hammering and beating not only diminishes the quality of tannin, but
has a tendency to blacken the fleshy part of the bark and cause rapid
decay in a bad season. The body, or trunk bark, is removed in lengths
of from 30 in. to 36 in., and in as large pieces as possible.
[Illustration: BARKING TOOLS]
A dry, open and airy situation, convenient to the work, but without
the wood, should be selected on which to harvest the bark, and rather
than this should be done in a sheltered, humid spot, the bark should be
carted to some distance off. The drying racks, or ranges, may be fully
2 ft. high, drooping somewhat to one side, and formed of forked sticks
driven firmly in the ground, while stout rods are placed transversely
upon these. It should also be so arranged as that not only may the
rain be thrown off, but so that the ends of the bark may be facing the
prevailing wind, thereby insuring a current of air through and beneath
the mass. After being carted or carried to the drying-ground, the
small bark is spread out loosely on the stage to a depth of about 6
in., and thatched or covered over with the larger pieces as a means of
protection against rain. Each day’s bark should be cleared up, and put
on the range the same evening, and oftener, if found necessary, during
damp showery weather, keeping the white or fleshy part downwards and
using the larger pieces as covers to run off the rain.
During favourable weather the bark will be ready for stacking in about
a fortnight from the time it was placed on the stage, but should
close damp weather intervene, it may be found necessary to turn the
bark occasionally, thus adding to the length of time required for
harvesting. It should, however, be remembered that the less turning
the bark receives after being placed on the stage the better will the
quality be. Well-seasoned bark has the fleshy side of a creamy colour,
whereas such as has been exposed to the sun or rain is of a dull brown,
and is wanting in tannin matter, and consequently of inferior value.
As soon as the bark is thoroughly dry and ready for stacking, which
may readily be ascertained by its breaking freely across rather than
bending or yielding to pressure, it should be secured in a shed,
ricked, or delivered to the tanner.
In stacking bark the rick should not be made too wide—say about 9
ft.—but well hearted, so that the side pieces may have a good fall
or declivity outwards to throw off the rain. The rick may be of any
length, according to the quantity of bark on hand, and of a height
proportionate to the width. The largest pieces of bark should be
reserved for thatching the rick, the whole being covered over by a
tarpaulin or waterproof cloth of some kind. In most cases the bark is
chipped previously to being sold, but as this necessitates having a
large shed at command, the system is not generally adopted. There are,
however, several advantages accruing from this method, not the least
of which is that the bark may be chopped up as it is removed from
the drying-stands, thus saving the expense of stacking. Chopping the
bark can also be done by the workmen during wet weather, and when not
otherwise engaged.
In computing the quantity of bark before stripping, we have found the
following data fairly reliable:—
1. A well-balanced tree with a good head will yield about 6 cwt. of
bark for every ton of measurable timber, if branches down to an inch in
diameter are peeled.
2. Hedgerow trees usually yield about a ton of bark to every three tons
of timber.
3. Trees growing in close woodland are usually thin barked, the yield
being about a ton of bark to every 4½ tons of timber.
4. Oak poles will average five tons of timber to a ton of bark.
Tall, clean stems, as are produced when the poles are grown thickly
together, with small heads, give the smallest yield in proportion
to the quantity of timber, and short stems with spreading heads the
largest.
The cost of production is as follows:—
£ _s._ _d._
Labour, peeling and harvesting 1 10 0
Cartage to railway station, including loading
(this is the average from six districts) 0 7 6
Loss on four months’ delay in selling the timber,
which, but for the bark, would have been
felled in winter at 5 per cent. 0 5 0
Customary terms of payment, less 2½ per cent. 0 2 0
Superintendence, etc. 0 1 6
———————————
£2 6 0
It has been carefully estimated that there is a loss of fully 12 per
cent. of wood, caused by felling the oak during the barking season. In
other words, the proportion of sap wood to the whole tree is about 14
per cent., which, for the majority of purposes to which oak timber is
applied, is rendered by the peeling of little or no value.
We may say, however, that 2 per cent. can be profitably utilized, which
still leaves us with a considerable loss on the whole tree.
The average price of the best oak is 2_s._ per ft., 12 per cent. of
which is as nearly as possible 3_d._ per ft., or £1 17_s._ 6_d._ per
ton of bark to 150 ft. of wood.
This, with the £2 6_s._ per ton cost of production, brings the total
to £4 3_s._ 6_d._, leaving a considerable balance on the wrong side at
pre-war prices.
CHAPTER XXIV
THE MANUFACTURE OF CHARCOAL
Amongst dead or dying industries of our woodlands that have been
revived by the war, none is at present receiving a greater share of
attention than the manufacture of charcoal.
There was a time, and not so long ago, when the merry voice and ring of
the charcoal burner’s axe were familiar sounds in some of the Kentish
and other forests of Southern England; but keen foreign competition,
aided by preferential carriage rates, have caused this time-honoured
industry to slip from our hands; indeed, it was almost forgotten
till again called into existence for the battlefields of France and
Flanders. The trenches must be warmed without apprising the enemy of
the existence of our men, and in order to do this and prevent soaring
signals of smoke, the tent brazier is filled with glowing charcoal.
Except, perhaps, in Kent and Surrey and the English Lake district,
where small quantities of charcoal are annually produced for the hop
kilns and iron smelting, charcoal burning is a thing of the past.
The expert charcoal burner is now a difficult man to find, and an
independent, highly-paid workman when you have found him. Successive
members of the same family in Kent have been known to follow the
occupation of charcoal burning for fully a century and a half, and it
is distinctly a skilled industry, and confined to few.
Usually the men work in threes, and, having selected a piece of ground
sheltered from the prevailing winds and in a position to which easy
access with wood can be obtained, a rough hut is erected for the
accommodation of these nocturnal workmen. Water, sand or sawdust and
turf are other requisites that must be provided as the work proceeds. A
couple of large tarpaulins and half a dozen straw-covered hurdles are
other necessities.
From the point of economy in carting the wood to the kilns it may seem
that shifting the position of burning from one part of the woodland to
another is to be recommended. Such is, however, not the case, as the
hard, dry, ash-covered site, where charring has already been carried
out, has its advantages, and the cost of transferring the workmen’s hut
and tools from one position to another must also be considered.
Several methods, largely dependent on the quantity and quality of
charcoal to be obtained, are adopted, but in order to procure that of
the best description the following system, which has been successfully
carried out on a large estate for the past hundred years at least, is
recommended. The timber carted to the charcoal yard consists of all
kinds of hardwoods, preferably not under two inches in diameter.
Firewood and rough, unsaleable timber, as also inferior grades of heavy
coppice wood, are mainly utilized for the production of charcoal.
The wood is sawn into pieces about 2 ft. long, this being the most
convenient size for building the kiln, and these again split if
required to some 4 in. to the side, and when a sufficient quantity for
two pits has been cut up, the building of these is proceeded with. It
has been found economical to burn two pits at the same time, as both
can be attended to as conveniently as one, and it is unnecessary for
the men to sit up at night to watch each separately. The charcoal pits,
one of which is shown in the accompanying sketch, are made of a broadly
conical shape, 21 ft. in diameter and about 9 ft. high, and the mode of
construction is as follows:—
A strong stake is driven firmly into the ground and left protruding
about a foot. Around this are placed small pieces of dry ash of equal
length, and standing as close to the upright stake as possible; around
this another layer is placed in the same manner, and this is continued
until a circle 5 ft. in diameter is obtained. A circle 1 ft. in
diameter, and having the top of the stake previously driven into the
ground as centre, is next made by placing the wood horizontally on the
upright pieces and side by side, the ends of each piece being placed at
the circumference of the circle already made, and directed towards its
centre. Layer upon layer is built in this manner until the pit is of
the required height, the wood used here being dry pieces of ash 2 ft.
in length, but split rather smaller than the ordinary pieces. A sort
of chimney is thus formed, by means of which the pit is fired. Outside
the core the wood is placed on end and reclining inwards, this being
continued until the pits are of the required size. When the building
is completed the pits are covered with newly cut turf, the grassy side
placed innermost, beginning at the base and working towards the top,
each line of turf overlapping the previous one by a few inches. The
circular hole or chimney is left open for firing. Before turfing the
top half of each pit it is carefully examined, and any crevices between
the wood packed full of small pieces of turf and sawdust to exclude
the air. The turfs are cut about 1 ft. in width, and of any convenient
length. The quantity required for two pits of the dimensions stated is
seven loads.
When the pit is satisfactorily covered it is fired by dropping a
couple of shovelfuls of burning wood and some dry pieces of pine or
ash into the opening left at the top; the top turf is then put on,
which effectually shuts up the chimney, and the process of charring
commences. The smoke is first seen issuing from the lower half of each
pit, where the chinks were not packed with sawdust, and ultimately it
escapes from the whole surface.
Constant attention is required day and night during the period of
burning, especially should the weather be stormy, as the wind, by
striking on a particular part of the pit, causes that side to burn more
rapidly, and fall in. When this occurs the hole must at once be filled
in with rough logs, which had been set aside for the purpose when
splitting the wood, and re-covered with turf.
When the weather is mild the pits burn uniformly, require but little
attention, and produce the finest charcoal. The time required for
burning will vary with the size of the pit, quality of wood, method
of covering, and meteorological conditions. From six to seven days
are usually required for pits of the above dimensions, but smaller
kilns only covered with grass, fern and a little soil may be ready for
uncovering in from two to four days. Long experience has, however,
proved that by the slower process of charring the best charcoal is
produced, but the cost is higher. By covering the pits with grass and
fern, as is often done, a considerable saving is no doubt effected,
but where turf is available there can be no question as to its value
over the former, and on the boundaries of most woodlands it is readily
procurable at the cost of cutting. As the charring proceeds the turf
gradually disappears until only a slight covering of burnt earth
remains. When the pits have burned out and become cool, it is found
that they are reduced to rather less than half their original size.
[Illustration: SECTION OF CHARCOAL PIT]
The charcoal is extracted by means of a specially constructed rake
resembling a light drag, but having much finer teeth, which, after it
has become quite cold, is stored in a shed until required for use.
The very finest charcoal, superior to what is generally sold, is
produced by this method. The expenses connected with making it are,
however, a little heavier than usual, owing to the slower system of
charring, the use of larger wood, and the extra cost of covering with
turf. As to the cost of producing charcoal by the above method, this
will vary greatly, much depending on the distance the wood has to be
carted and on the cost of labour in the particular district.
The price paid to the charcoal burners is 7_d._ per bushel, or about
four guineas per ton, which may seem high, but when we consider that
it is specialized work that is confined to few and attended with grave
risks and discomfort, the amount earned is not excessive. It should
also be remembered that, previous to lighting the kilns, sufficient
rough, not corded, wood has to be sawn and split and the pits carefully
built and covered, not to speak of the constant attention required,
both day and night, wet or dry, for from three to seven days, during
charring process. The usual price for burning charcoal when the wood is
corded is 35_s._ per ton.
Fresh-felled wood is rarely converted into charcoal, the greater
portion of that used being thinnings of the previous season. The
proportion of wood to charcoal varies greatly, much depending on the
size, quality, and maturity of timber. Having had occasion to purchase
charcoal lately, I found the price, retail, to be 2_s._ 6_d._ per
bushel, or in quantities of not less than a ton, £14, for that of fair
quality.
From about the twelfth century onwards Scotland, where wood was
abundant, produced annually a large quantity of charcoal iron; and in
1660 the Navy Commissioners nominated John Evelyn to investigate the
then denudation of forests owing to the manufacture of charcoal for
iron smelting, and the following quaint extract from his report will
be interesting:—“Nature has thought fit to produce this wasting ore
more plentifully in woodlands than any other point, and to enrich our
forests to their own destruction—a deep execration of iron mills and
ironmasters also.” The Lorn Works, in Argyllshire, were started in
1753, and annually consumed upwards of 3,000 tons of lump charcoal.
The Sussex and Kentish forests at one time supported many of the
familiar charcoal burners, and right brawny and thrifty were these
denizens of the woodland with their rustic wooden huts and piles of
rifted firewood, but the industry was almost a thing of the past till
again called into active existence by the exigencies of the war.
=Kiln burning.=—The kiln is made of brick, one course being sufficient,
if bands of iron be added to strengthen the brickwork. It is usually
conical in shape, 24 ft. in diameter, with an equal height, and holds
about forty cords of wood. The wall of the kiln is carried up nearly
straight for about 6 ft., when it is gradually drawn in and made a
blunt cone shape. A plate of iron is fastened on the top in the manner
of a stone to an arch. Three-inch hoop-iron bands, about an eighth
of an inch thick, are placed around the kiln and drawn together by
means of screw-bolts and nuts. At the base, and near the top, are
double sheet-iron doors, by which it is filled with wood or emptied
of charcoal. The time required to fill, burn and empty is about three
weeks. Pit-burning, for estate purposes, is, however, most commonly
pursued, and has this advantage—that the charcoal can be made at any
place where timber is being felled, without extra expense, save that of
the cartage of the charcoal, whereas in using the kiln or retort the
wood must, in most cases, be conveyed to the place where it is erected.
=Comparative Value of Woods for Charcoal making.=—Amongst home-grown
timber, oak, ash, and beech are generally preferred for charcoal
making, but the following table will show pretty correctly the
proportionate relative values of the various descriptions of wood for
gunpowder charcoal:—
Per Cent.
Rhamnus frangula contains 27
Laburnum 25
Boxwood 24
Sweet Chestnut 23
Oak 22
Holly 20
Walnut 20
Beech 19
Sycamore 19
Elm 19
Willow 18
Poplar 18
Birch 17
Alder 17
Ash 17
Hazel 17
Mountain Ash 17
Scotch fir 16
Larch 16
=Uses of Charcoal.=—The uses of charcoal for estate purposes are very
numerous, for horticultural, agricultural and other departments.
From remote antiquity charcoal has been used as a fuel, and for many
purposes it is still unsurpassed. It is by far the cleanest solid fuel
known; it burns steadily, gives out a great amount of heat, and lasts
well. On account of its smokelessness it is invaluable for cookery, and
it is also admirably suited for use in green-house and other stoves.
It is not adopted for heating apartments on account of the poisonous
gas (carbonic oxide) produced in its combustion, and the danger,
most apparent when the charcoal is burnt in an open chauffer, is not
obviated by using it in a stove, as carbonic oxide has the power of
diffusing through red-hot iron.
In gardening, charcoal is largely used for potting purposes, for vine
borders, and for flower beds; and in the form of dust it is the best
material for packing bulbs for transmission to a distance.
Perhaps the most important of the uses to which charcoal can be put
about a house or estate is that depending on its extraordinary power
of absorbing gases. It is a perfect deodorant, a preservative of food
and all animal substances and a valuable disinfectant. The gases most
readily absorbed by charcoal are those which are most prejudicial to
health and most frequently produced by putrefactive changes.
In the pores of the charcoal they are destroyed by union with the
oxygen condensed from the air. The fact of its being absolutely
non-poisonous and perfectly odourless puts it before all other
disinfectants.
=“Dogwood” for Gunpowder Charcoal.=—The alder buckthorn, berry-bearing
or black alder (_Rhamnus frangula_) is a native shrub that is fairly
plentiful in Southern England, though rare in Scotland and Ireland.
Confusion sometimes arises from the same popular name being applied
to widely different species of plants, and this, unfortunately, is
the case with the shrub in question. What is known among gunpowder
manufacturers as dogwood is in reality the present shrub (_Rhamnus_),
which, however, is quite distinct from the true dogwood (_Cornus_)
and belongs to an entirely different family. To those who contemplate
growing charcoal wood for the making of explosives, this distinction is
of the utmost importance, as I have seen _Cornus sanguinea_ cultivated
for the making of gunpowder.
The alder buckthorn is perfectly hardy, growing freely even in the
North of Scotland, where it ripens its seeds. It is usually found as an
erect-growing bush from 8 ft. to 10 ft. in height, though in suitable
situations in Southern England specimens fully 20 ft. high, with stems
6 in. in diameter, are to be met with. The bright green leaves are
oval in shape and vary, according to conditions of growth, from 2 in.
to 3 in. in length, while the flowers are of a dull yellowish green
and are succeeded by dark purple berries each about the size of a pea.
From a very early date the alder buckthorn has been cultivated, though
not extensively, in this country for charcoal making, and the price,
upwards of £15 per ton, that is paid for the wood, shows that the
growing of this shrub is a profitable undertaking. At one time large
quantities of the wood were produced in Sussex and other counties, the
selling price being £14 per ton when peeled and tied in bundles.
The cultivation of the alder buckthorn is nearly similar to that of the
osier for basket-making, and the produce is dealt with and disposed of
in like manner. For soil any good loam inclined to be dampish will suit
it well, and an open, but not wind-swept, situation should be chosen
for its cultivation. The land intended for growing the alder buckthorn
should be trenched the winter before planting, and a top-dressing of
leaf soil or thoroughly decomposed manure, the former preferably, will
greatly assist the growth of the young plants and prevent too speedy
evaporation of moisture from the soil. Young plants are not offered
in quantity in our nursery catalogues, and in order to obtain a stock
sufficient to form a plantation, seed-sowing or layering old plants
must be resorted to. Fortunately, by either method the plant is readily
obtained in quantity, and as the seeds are produced in fair abundance
and ripen freely this method of getting up a stock is to be recommended.
The berries, after being collected in the early winter, are treated
much as we treat those of the yew and holly. They are mixed with sand
in order to separate the seed and fleshy covering, and the whole
is sown during early spring in previously prepared beds. The seed
beds may be prepared in any shady situation out of doors, the soil
being largely composed of light sandy loam mixed with finely riddled
leaf-mould. Sometimes the seeds are sown in boxes and placed in a cool
frame, but we have found cultivation out of doors more satisfactory.
When two years old, the seedlings should be transplanted into lines
18 in. apart and 9 in. from plant to plant. Here they may remain for
another two years, after which they should be planted out permanently
and headed back the following season. Rather thick final planting is
to be recommended, as the shrub being of upright growth, requires
comparatively small room for development, and the best wands are
produced by a close order of growth, say 5 ft. from plant to plant.
Layering does not produce such upright-habited shrubs as those grown
from seed, and the yield of wood per acre under exactly similar
conditions of growth is greatly in favour of seedlings.
After planting, the ground should be kept free from rough-growing seeds
for the first two years, the crop being cut at from six to seven years’
growth, when the wands are from 1½ in. to 2 in. diameter at butt end.
Cutting and bundling is usually done by contract, but, as with the
osier, it is imperative that the crop be cut over near ground level and
short “stumps” without “spurs” encouraged.
As in the case of ordinary coppice wood, the buckthorn for charcoal
making may be cut every sixth or seventh year, the straightest shoots
when sorted in about 5 ft. lengths being tied in bundles which are
about a yard in girth. The buckthorn being a gross feeder, manuring the
land after the removal of a crop has been found advantageous.
Although largely imported from Holland, and other parts of the
Continent, home-grown wood is preferred, as it produces a much
superior charcoal for the manufacture of explosives. Unfortunately,
however, home supplies are so limited that foreign wood is imported
in considerable quantity, and as there was a scarcity before the war,
the probabilities are that, with our greatly increased consumption of
charcoal explosives, a dearth of suitable wood is now being felt.
With the present small remuneration attaching to the cultivation of
coppice or underwood, which under ordinary circumstances does not
exceed £4 per acre, the cultivation of the alder buckthorn is to be
recommended, particularly as the price is at least quadrupled. The
cultivation of this is quite simple, while the quality of soil required
need not be better than that which produces a crop of chestnut or
hazel. In cultivating the alder buckthorn for charcoal purposes the
following rules should be observed:—
1. It will not succeed satisfactorily in sandy, poor or water-logged
soils; rich, well-manured loam being preferred.
2. The ground should either be trenched or ploughed and cleared of all
rough-growing weeds the winter before planting.
3. Plant seedlings or layers in the spring in lines about 5 ft. apart
and the same distance from plant to plant.
4. An annual clearance of weeds and loosening of the soil between the
rows of plants is recommended where a heavy crop is expected.
5. Induce the growth of stout clean shoots by liberal feeding and clean
cultivation.
6. Cut the shoots close to the ground so as to prevent the formation of
long spurs and minimize the number of off-shoots. Clean cutting with a
sharp tool is imperative.
7. After the removal of a crop, stirring and enriching the soil is to
be recommended.
8. Though found mixed with undershrubs and in the shade of trees when
in a wild state, yet the greatest quantity of the most valuable wood
for charcoal making is produced in open situations.
CHAPTER XXV
PRICES OF HOME-GROWN TIMBER
These vary so much in different parts of the country that it is
almost impossible to give a list that would apply generally to the
British Isles. Local demand and the situation of the plantations where
the timber is to be sold have to be considered, while the quantity
available and quality of the particular timber are also important
factors in determining the price.
In many instances woods and plantations are far removed from road and
rail, consequently the cost of delivering to the consuming centre
is proportionately high, while in the vicinity of coal mines or
manufacturing towns almost every class of timber will find a ready and
profitable market. Then the quality of the timber (its reputation, we
might almost say) is a powerful factor in assessing its value, as will
be seen in the case of oak produced in Surrey and Sussex, or beech from
the chalky districts of Kent and Hertfordshire. No timber merchant
thinks twice as to whether he should, on account of quality, purchase
oaks at Rockingham, Ashridge, Welbeck or other well-known centres, and
so it is with the beech timber on the Chiltern Hills, at the Chenies,
in Hertfordshire, or with Scotch pine from the famous Aberdeenshire
plantations.
But there is another factor that frequently affects the price of good
timber, and that is, that in inaccessible positions the quantity
offered is too small. This has been the case with excellent larch
timber in Ireland, where the quantity offered was not sufficient to
induce the timber merchant to lay down plant and arrange for delivery
to the nearest railway or port. There are other causes of a minor
nature that greatly affect the price of home-grown timber, and it is
a curious fact that in adjoining counties, sometimes even in the same
county, the prices of various timbers vary several pence per cubic
foot. With all woodland products the same is the case, and locality
and local demand determine the price of faggots, firewood and other
commodities.
Previous to the war, the following were the average prices of
home-grown timber, felled and lying in the wood; also of other woodland
produce. The prices at present are generally much higher.
_s._ _d._ _s._ _d._
Ash from 1 6 to 2 6 per cubic foot.
Alder ” 0 7 ” 0 10 ” ”
Beech ” 0 10 ” 1 4 ” ”
Birch ” 0 7 ” 0 10 ” ”
Chestnut (Spanish) ” 1 3 ” 1 6 ” ”
” (Horse) ” 0 8 —— ” ”
Cherry ” 0 9 ” 1 2 ” ”
Elm ” 0 7 ” 1 6 ” ”
Larch ” 0 10 ” 1 4 ” ”
Lime ” 0 10 ” 1 6 ” ”
Oak ” 1 3 ” 2 6 ” ”
Oak, brown ” 3 6 ” 10 6 ” ”
(but these trees are usually sold at so much for each)
Poplar from 0 9 to 1 6 per cubic foot.
Scotch Pine ” 0 5 ” 0 10 ” ”
Spruce Fir ” 0 5 ” 0 9 ” ”
Willow ” 1 6 ” 10 6 ” ”
Walnut ” 1 0 ” 2 6 ” ”
Sycamore ” 1 3 ” 2 6 ” ”
Firewood ” 5 0 per cart load.
” ” 12 0 to 16 0 per cord.
Faggots (large) ” 14 0 ” 21 0 ” 100.
” (small) ” 2 6 per 100.
Oak bark ” 52 0 ” ton.
Charcoal ” 1 0 ” bushel.
Since the war commenced several kinds of timber have increased greatly
in value, notably ash, poplar, Scotch pine and spruce fir. For the
latter as much as 1_s._ 4_d._ per cubic foot was obtained in Bucks,
while in several cases first-class ash timber realized upwards of 4_s._
per cubic foot.
Pitwood, also, has increased in price.
PRICES OF TIMBER PER TON WEIGHT
In several parts of the country, particularly Ireland, timber is
regularly sold by weight and the following prices were realized
previous to the war:—
_s._ _d._ _s._ _d._
Ash and sycamore —— 18 0 per ton.
Beech 5 0 to 10 0 ”
Larch 12 0 ” 20 0 ”
Scotch pine, spruce and silver fir —— 8 0 ”
Spruce 8 0 ” 10 0 ”
Oak —— 15 0 ”
Elm and beech —— 10 0 ”
Hardwoods of pitwood size —— 6 0 ”
Larch poles and pitwood (Wales) 9 0 ” 10 0 ”
That the heavy importation of foreign woods has had a prejudicial
influence on the value of home-grown timbers is realized by all those
who are engaged in the trade. The depreciation in price has, however,
been so gradual that it is difficult to realize this unless by
comparing the prices of to-day with those of, say, a hundred years ago.
Several of these comparisons clearly indicate that oak, at least, has
become much reduced in value, less so ash and elm, and the following
list of prices obtained in 1807 for timber on two estates in Hants will
serve to show that for trees of equal size the price to-day is far
behind that of a century ago.
_s._ _d._
Oak averaging 9 cubic feet 4 0 per foot.
Ash ” 7 ” 2 3 ”
Elm ” 22 ” 1 9 ”
Beech ” 14 ” 1 6 ”
Sycamore ” 19 ” 1 3 ”
Fir ” 11 ” 1 3 ”
On another estate trees of about the same size brought: oak, 4_s._;
ash, 1_s._ 6_d._; elm, etc., 1_s._; beech, 1_s._; and firs, 1_s._
per cubic foot. When the small size of the individual trees is taken
into account, and even admitting that only the best portion of each
trunk was measured, the prices, as compared with those of to-day, are
exceedingly high, particularly for oak, ash and fir.
CHAPTER XXVI
BRITISH TIMBER AND SOME OF ITS USES
The following are a few of the many uses to which home-grown timber is
applied:—
=Alder= is used extensively for clog soles, barrel staves, mill
bobbins, and occasionally in furniture making. It makes excellent
charcoal for cooking and heating, as well as that used in the
manufacture of gunpowder.
The wood of the =Apple=, =Cherry= and =Pear tree=, when of large size,
is used for cabinet purposes, and stained in imitation of other woods.
For veneers, golf clubs, bowls, etc., these woods are of value, as also
for weaving shuttles.
=Ash= timber is largely used by agricultural implement makers on
account of its possessing great elasticity and bearing considerable
cross-strain. It is the best wood for shafts of all kinds, for tool
handles and wooden rakes, and is largely used by furniture makers.
=Beech= wood is the chief constituent of cane-bottomed chairs, and is
largely employed for the handles of joiners’, carpenters’ and other
wood-workers’ tools. For gunstocks, saddle-trees for heavy harness,
wheel-felloes and bobbins it is also largely employed. When of large
size and clean growth, it is used for calendar machines, and for
engineering purposes in spinning and bleaching districts. It makes
excellent charcoal.
=Birch= wood is largely used for turnery work, thread bobbins, clog
soles, shoe pegs, furniture, hatters’ blocks; it is also used in the
manufacture of brushes and in toy making.
=Chestnut= (Spanish) timber more nearly approaches that of oak than
any other species, and when stained is not only substituted for it, but
for the walnut as well. For piano sides it is largely used, as also for
rafters in open-roof churches, for furniture and cabinet work, ship
fittings, sign-boards, and post and rail fencing.
=Elm= wood is extensively used for the boarding and flooring of carts
and wagons, in coffin making, for the framework and foundations of
bridges, for naves for wheels, and for the keels of boats and ships.
It makes strong furniture, and is often substituted for ash in making
agricultural implements.
=Holly= is used by mathematical instrument makers, for fancy turnery
and inlaid work. It is often sold as ebony when “ebonized.”
=Hornbeam= timber for cogs in mill gearing is well known, also in
“bushing” for sawmill rollers, and for skittle pins.
=Horse Chestnut.=—The timber is largely used for packing boxes,
moulding patterns for castings, cutting boards, manufacture of brushes,
and occasionally for covering temporary buildings.
=Larch.=—The wood of this tree is largely used for fencing, boat
building, permanent staging, and pitwood.
=Lime.=—The wood is white and very fine of grain, and used for carved
work, sounding boards for musical instruments, wagon brakes, packing
boxes, toys, domestic utensils, and for shoemakers’ and saddlers’
cutting boards. Charcoal for gunpowder is made from this wood.
=Maple= is employed in the turning of bowls, for toys, and “bird’s-eye”
maple for furniture.
=Oak= has long been associated with our national defence as the chief
element in shipbuilding, but although iron and steel have to a great
extent taken its place, yet for barges and small boats the timber is
still largely used. Wagons for railway mineral traffic are largely made
of oak, while the builder finds in it his best material for the strong
frames of domes, spires and roofs of public buildings. It is also
used for the bottoms of carts and wagons, cartwheel spokes, fencing,
furniture making, railway “spraggs,” charcoal, etc.
=Poplar= wood is woolly and tenacious, and for this reason is used for
the bottoms of stone carts and barrows. It is well adapted for making
packing cases, railway brakes, weather boarding, and for purposes where
lightness is of greater importance than durability. The Abele, or
white Poplar, produces perhaps the most valuable timber of any of the
numerous species.
=Scotch Spruce= and =Silver Fir= may all be classed under the same
heading, being of about equal value and applicable to similar purposes,
viz., for sleepers and pitwood, boarding under slates, headings for
barrels, soap boxes, temporary fencing, also for conversion into
planking for lead works, and for all erections of a temporary kind.
=Sycamore= timber is peculiarly white and smooth and free from grain,
which makes it very valuable. It is used for curtain rings, churns,
butter prints, for the backs of violins, for founders’ patterns and
cutting boards, and in the making of wooden vessels and furniture. For
calendar machines and in cotton and jute factories it is much employed.
=Walnut= timber is much in demand for gun and rifle stocks, for the
best class of furniture, and for veneering purposes.
=Willow= is famous for the production of the best class of cricket bats
and for artificial limbs and crutches. It also makes good charcoal.
=Yew= wood is valuable when employed for veneering.
CHAPTER XXVII
WILLOWS FOR BASKET-MAKING
Previous to the war, preferential railway and boat rates, aided by keen
foreign competition, wellnigh rendered the time-honoured industry of
basket-making a thing of the past in this country. The best classes
of osiers, cleaned and ready for manipulation, were delivered to our
principal markets from Continental sources at so low a price that
competition on our part was almost out of the question. There are
still, however, a few stations, such as those in Bedfordshire, the fen
districts of Lincoln and Cambridge, and along certain reaches of the
Thames, where willow culture is engaged in, though not in the same
energetic way as was the case some half a century ago.
About 7,000 acres, producing roughly 20,000 tons of osiers, are
cultivated in this country at the present time, many small plantations
having been grubbed out and the land laid down in other crops during
the past five and twenty years.
This falling off is much to be regretted, as the sorting and harvesting
of osiers and basket-making gave light and remunerative employment
to a large number of residents, both young and old, of the districts
in which the willow-beds were situated. Land that was damp and could
not well be brought under other cultivation without the expense of
drainage, gave a good return under a crop of osiers. Taking everything
into consideration, and judging from talks that I have had recently
with those who are interested in the osier industry, the formation
of willow-beds, under the plea that considerable profits attend the
undertaking, is not to be recommended. No doubt in some favoured
districts where carriage is reduced to a minimum and local demand
is considerable, osier cultivation gives a fair return for capital
invested; but until we can get back the once lucrative trade in
baskets for fruit and other similar commodities from the hands of our
Continental rivals, profits of any magnitude are quite precluded.
There is little doubt that on soil which is unsuited for farming
purposes willow culture can be made fairly profitable, but it is a
mistake to suppose that any marshy piece of stiff ground will grow
osiers, or that the planting and tending are matters of small import.
Quite the reverse is the case. The willow will not thrive for long
in water-logged soils, though periodical inundations, particularly
during winter and early spring, are highly beneficial. In addition,
the soil must be well worked, the cutting of rods carefully and
systematically carried out, and the clearing of the ground must receive
strict attention, else deterioration of the crop will quickly ensue.
Previously to planting the cuttings or sets, the ground should be
ploughed, harrowed and consolidated, all objectionable weeds being
destroyed.
For some considerable time to come there is bound to be a dearth of
willows for basket-making, as our main supplies have come from Germany
and the Netherlands. Here, then, is a chance for the owners of suitable
land in this country to set to work at once and revive a time-honoured
industry by planting up suitable grounds with the most approved kinds
of willow for basket-making. That the undertaking, if wisely carried
out, would be a remunerative one is beyond question, and the excellent
results attained at such places as Leicester and Bedford clearly prove
that willow culture is a most profitable way of utilizing naturally
dampish land in any but the most exposed situations.
For the past few years the demand in this country for high-grade
willows has been greatly in excess of the supply, in fact, hardly
one-fifth of our requirements are produced at home. Germany, previous
to the war, exported willows and rods to the value of about £42,000,
this being an increase in five years of fully one-half; while of
the manufactured articles in the way of baskets and basket ware her
total value exceeded £42,000. But as giving some idea of our wants in
this direction it may be stated that the total value of willow rods
annually sent to this country from the Continent is in round figures
about £100,000, and of baskets and basket ware fully £170,000. What a
contrast with the period in our history when an important export trade
in willows was done by this country!
The willow working industry is a rapidly expanding one. Owing to the
increasing demand, the value of peeled willows is gradually on the
increase, and present prices range from £24 to £38 per ton for those
of best size and quality. These are in the main exported and used for
high-class work in the basket trade, rougher unpeeled willows that are
largely in use for cheap packing hampers and farm purposes bringing
in a much lower price. Fruit baskets in immense numbers are annually
imported from the Continent, one firm alone having sent over £150,000;
while at Leith basket works, which mainly caters for the agricultural
and fishing industries, thousands of herring baskets alone are sent out
every month, while the packing hamper department is of great interest
and a special feature of this enterprising firm.
Previous to the war willow or osier culture was mainly in the hands of
the French for rods of good quality, the Belgians and Germans supplying
a cheaper kind probably owing to the quality of soil and inferior
varieties that are cultivated.
There are not a few persons who consider that in order to cultivate
willows successfully, any neglected, damp piece of ground, which is
unsuited for other crops, may be utilized, and the cuttings simply
stuck in without ground preparation of any kind. This is, however, a
great mistake, as experience has long ago demonstrated that in order to
make osier cultivation at all profitable, a low level, and a naturally
rather moist situation must be chosen, and further, that the soil
should be deep, well drained and thoroughly prepared.
Thoroughly drain the ground first, then steam-plough or trench the
soil to a depth of about 18 in., removing carefully all weeds,
particularly such troublesome kinds as the bindweed, couch grass and
dock. It is always preferable to take a crop of potatoes first from
the land intended to be laid down for osier culture, as it not only
sweetens and enriches the soil, but allows of the eradication of all
obnoxious weeds. Where, however, it is not practicable to crop the land
first with potatoes, the soil should be well and roughly broken up and
left so for a year, or for a winter, at least, before being planted
with the osiers. The best time to plant is from October to the middle
of March. The sets, or cuttings, should be about 15 in. long, and
formed of well-ripened rods, of one year’s growth, and the straightest
and cleanest portion of the rod only used. Three or four buds should,
if possible, be on the top end of each set. In planting, insert the
cuttings from 9 to 12 in. into the ground, leaving 3 in. above soil,
which forms the stool that bears the future crops.
It is well to exercise great caution while inserting the cuttings,
as, if the work has been delayed till the sap is rising, the bark
readily strips away from the wood, and this is very objectionable, as
the plants in such a state usually die. The sets may be placed about
15 in. apart, and the rows, which, for convenience, should be lined
off straight, about 30 in. from each other. Of course, as regards
distances, these will depend to a great extent on the quality of the
soil and the particular kind of willow being planted, but the above are
good average distances.
For basket-making, etc., the best kinds of osiers to use are
_Salix triandra_ and _S. viminalis_, but there are others. A good
basket-willow, be it of whatever kind, should, when green, twist from
end to end without breaking. It is well to bear in mind that, in order
to obtain the greatest profits from willow culture, only the very
best kinds should be planted—indeed, next to preparing the ground, a
judicious selection should be one of the main considerations. For the
first year, at least, after being formed, osier beds must be carefully
attended to in the way of cleaning and weeding. Hoeing will be found
the most convenient method of getting rid of weeds, but, in the case
of bindweed, hand-picking around and amongst the sets will be found
necessary.
Cutting the osiers must be done while the crop is dormant, or not later
than the middle of February, but not during frost, which will injure
and kill off parts of the stool. The cutting is done by means of a
rod-hook, which resembles a miniature sickle; this should always be
kept sharp, so that the cuts may be made clean. Tie the rods together
when dry, in bundles of three or four sizes, and either house or stack
them. It should be borne in mind that rods are easily spoiled by being
tied up or stacked whilst in a wet state, as they very soon become
heated, which makes them brittle and utterly valueless for the purpose
intended. What is known in England as “bolting” is simply taking a
number of osiers, as nearly of a size as possible, and laying them on
a twisted wand, at the same time keeping the butts all one way, and
level, then drawing them tightly together—not, however, to such an
extent as to injure the bark—with a rope and two levers, and finishing
off by tying the wand. The wand should be at 14 in. from the butts. A
bolt of rods should measure 40 in. round the band.
In forming a willow bed, the following short rules should be observed:—
1. Willows will not succeed well in peaty, sandy, or water-logged
soils; rich, well-drained loam, that can be flooded at will is the most
suitable.
2. Trench or plough, and thoroughly clean or pulverize the ground
before planting.
3. Plant only the best kinds, studying soil and market, and avoid a
mixed crop.
4. From November to March insert the cuttings about nine inches deep,
avoiding such as are bark-chafed, and tramp firmly.
5. Keep the beds clean and free from weeds.
6. Cut the crop close to the ground; pollard willows soon decay and in
that state harbour injurious insects.
The following estimate of the approximate cost per acre of osier
culture, and the returns therefrom for the first three years will be of
interest:—
FIRST YEAR.
£ _s._ _d._
Ploughing the ground and planting 4 10 0
Hoeing and other attention 1 5 0
15,700 willow cuttings (_Salix viminalis_) 10 0 0
Rent, rates, and 5 per cent. interest on capital 2 12 0
Harvesting 0 18 0
————————————
£19 5 0
Yield first year 3 tons, value 9 0 0
————————————
Loss £10 5 0
SECOND YEAR.
£ _s._ _d._
Rent, rates and incidentals 2 10 0
Hoeing and cleaning 1 8 0
Harvesting 1 10 0
————————————
£5 8 0
Yield about 5 tons. 20 0 0
————————————
Profit £15 8 0
THIRD AND SUBSEQUENT YEARS.
Expenditure £6. Yield £24. Profit £18.
If the ground is properly cultivated and losses made good, the
plantation should give a yield similar to the third year for fully a
quarter of a century.
In the low-lying district between Taunton, Bridgwater and Langport, in
Somerset, willow or osier culture is largely engaged in.
The system generally adopted is that the owner or tenant of the land
planted to willows keeps the land free from weeds to prevent the
withies being choked. This entails an outlay of about 25_s._ per acre
per annum if properly done. The crops are measured and marked out
in half-acre lots and sold in October or November. The purchasers
cut and remove them, and in some cases convert them into baskets,
basket-chairs, and such like. In other cases the purchasers select and
bundle the crop in the regulation sizes and sell them to dealers.
The results of some recent sales are as follows: One field of 11½
acres realized £132 and the first two half-acres, being remarkably
good withies, made £19 10_s._ Three other fields, containing 16 acres
in all, made £161 10_s._; and three others, containing 22½ acres, £222
2_s._ 6_d._ The agricultural annual rental value of this land when
pasture, before it was planted to willows, was under £2 per acre.
From the above it will be seen that if prudently entered upon and
economically carried out the cultivation of willows for basket-making
is a paying industry, and as for some years to come foreign supplies
will be barred to our markets, the enterprise should prove highly
remunerative.
CHAPTER XXVIII
UTILIZING WASTE FOREST PRODUCE
That the production of timber, in common with other trades, has of
late years been rendered far less remunerative than formerly, owing
principally to keen foreign competition, is a fact that is now well
known, even to the most casual observer. In face of this it behoves
us to ask ourselves the question: Do we utilize to the fullest extent
the by-products of the forest and woodland, and so diminish waste,
and, at the same time, add to the general revenue of the forest
department? By waste produce, or by-products, is meant anything other
than wood in the condition in which it is generally used, and includes
bark, charcoal, firewood, house and kiln faggots, tar, wood-spirit,
turpentine, sawdust, wood-ashes, leaf soil, etc. That much may be done,
both in economy of production and in utilization of waste produce, is
well known to those in charge of woods and forests in every part of the
country. Where the by-products cannot well be utilized in any of the
above-named ways, it would be better, perhaps, to reduce them to ashes;
for, by so doing, insect and fungus life are lessened, and a valuable
manure is obtained, particularly rich in potash, whether for grassland
or certain farm or garden crops.
The forest by-products of Great Britain and Ireland are, in the main,
applied in the four following ways:—
(1) Firewood.
(2) Charcoal, for heating purposes, etc.
(3) Bark for tanning.
(4) Faggots, for house and kiln purposes.
Although the British forester has usually little or nothing to do with
what we might term the volatile products of the forest—tar, pitch,
turpentine, rosin, wood-spirit, acetic acid, etc.—nor, indeed, with
paper-pulp, it may not be out of place to point out briefly the minor
uses to which waste timber and by-products generally may be applied.
Tar, which at present is largely imported from the Baltic ports and
Southern United States, is obtainable principally from three species of
Pinus: _P. palustris_, _P. Pinaster_, and _P. sylvestris_.
Pitch is simply tar deprived of the volatile oils, which is brought
about by boiling.
Turpentine comes from incisions made in the stems of some of the pines,
principally _Pinus palustris_, _P. sylvestris_, and _P. tæda_.
The common silver fir (_Abies pectinata_) produces the famous Strasburg
turpentine, while the larch is the source of the Venice turpentine of
commerce.
In New England the whole of the younger sapling pines—stem, branches,
bark and leaves—are made into pasteboard, while in other countries the
lime and poplar are converted into paper-pulp of great value. That the
great and ever-increasing demand for paper of all qualities will cause
a corresponding demand for the material used in its production cannot
be doubted, and attention has already been directed to this matter in
some parts of this country. From the sap of the larch and Scotch firs
“coniferin” is obtained, while “rubber,” a valuable product for mixing
with gutta-percha, which is very durable, is got from the bark of the
common birch by distillation. The value of gorse as a food for horses
and sheep is well known even in this country, while in Italy poplar
leaves have long been used as cattle-food, and ground fir-needles in
Styria for the same purpose.
Dried leaves make excellent litter, and they are valuable as manure.
Sawdust, though without manurial value, absorbs liquid manure, and is
thus used as an excellent top-dressing. Leaf-mould is well known for
its many uses in the garden, as for top-dressing and mixing with other
poorer soils in the making of composts for planting. These are some
of the many uses to which the minor by-products of the forest can be
applied, but, as these hardly come within the scope of the forester,
special attention will be devoted to the major by-products—firewood,
charcoal, bark and faggots—with which the British forester is most
intimately associated.
=(1) Firewood.=—Never, perhaps, was the subject of English firewood
more worthy of consideration than at the present time, when the price
of other fuels is excessively high. Many persons will maintain that
in districts where coal is abundant, it is very questionable whether
there is any advantage to be obtained from burning wood. We have
satisfied ourselves that even if wood could be procured at less than
its present price—firewood price—it is nearly as expensive as coal,
as sold previous to the war, in most of our large towns. No doubt, on
many large estates where there is a superfluity of unsaleable wood,
it would be utter folly not to have it converted into firewood, more
particularly as such work gives employment to the woodmen when the
inclemency of the weather puts a stop to general outdoor work. But this
in itself is no proof that the firewood when prepared and ready for
the grate is not as expensive as coal; for, when the rent of ground on
which the wood was grown, and the cost of felling and converting it
into firewood is taken into account, it will be found nearly as costly
as household coal of ordinary quality.
What will it cost to prepare a ton of firewood? This is a question that
is not readily answered, the cost of labour in various parts of the
country varying so widely. In England, generally speaking, the cutting
up and stacking of a cord of fairly clean firewood—that is to say when
large knotty pieces, which require the mallet and wedge for their
manipulation, are excluded—costs from 5_s._ to 6_s._ Again, how many
cords of wood will make a ton of firewood? This is another question
that is more readily asked than answered, for the difference in weight
between equal-sized logs of, say, oak and birch is considerable. For
all practical purposes, however, we may state that about one and a
half cords of wood go to the ton of firewood, thus making the cost of
preparing and housing the latter about 10_s._ The lowest price at
which we have sold a ton weight fresh cut was 8_s._, but 10_s._ is
nearer the usual price, or about one-half of what is generally obtained
for firewood. The cartage of this ton of wood cannot be less than 3_s._
Much depends upon the distance it must be carted, no doubt, but it is
usually delivered within a radius of two miles for the price quoted.
The whole matter, therefore, stands something like this: Lowest cost of
a ton of wood, 8_s._, cutting same into firewood and stacking, 8_s._;
cost of delivery, 3_s._—total 19_s._
It will thus be seen that the difference in price between a ton of
firewood and one of coal is inconsiderable, and every one knows which
of the two as fuel lasts the longer and imparts the greater amount of
heat.
Of course, where the firewood is cut up during wet weather by the
estate workmen and consumed on the estate, the matter will stand
somewhat differently, the two principal items, the cost of preparing
and cutting being considerably diminished. In districts where the
firewood cannot readily be sold, and would only rot in the woods, it
is a wise policy to have it cut into firewood, not only for the saving
effected in the coal bill, but also for preservation of the health of
the plantations.
In mining districts, or on the outskirts of large towns, there is
usually little difficulty in getting rid of all surplus wood for firing
and other purposes, but in thinly-populated, outlying parts of the
country, where the cost of transit is excessive, the actual difference
between the price of a ton of coal and one of firewood has to be
considered.
=(2) Charcoal.=—The following are the chief uses to which charcoal
is put in this country: the manufacture of gun and blasting powders,
the heating of hall-stoves, cooking, boiling preserves, and the
smelting of iron. It is also employed as a filtering and deodorizing
agent. Further, it occupies an important place in the making of black
paint, ink, ivory- and lamp-black, and is valuable as a horticultural
requisite in the packing of bulbs and for potting purposes. In the
manufacture of gunpowder, for which a highly inflammable quality is
required, the three principal woods used are the so-called dogwood
(_Rhamnus frangula_), the white willow (_Salix alba_), and the common
alder (_Alnus glutinosa_), though not infrequently the hazel, chestnut
and our native _Rhamnus catharticus_ are substituted.
Charcoal produced from the dogwood is, however, preferred to any other,
as this forms a very explosive powder, used for military small-arms and
for sporting purposes. For this purpose the dogwood is cut when an inch
in diameter, and, if possible, when not more than of ten years’ growth.
Although iron cylinders or retorts are more economical in the making of
charcoal, yet for various reasons the primitive method of pit-burning
is to be recommended for general estate purposes. The manufacture of
charcoal in this way having received due attention elsewhere in this
book, it need not be repeated here. It should be remembered that small
wood is more profitable for charcoal making than that of a larger
size, not only because the former requires little or no cutting and
splitting, but for the main reason that it can be procured at less
cost, and produces more charcoal, weight for weight. Even at the
present low price of charcoal—about 1_s._ per bushel—there is a fair
profit attached to the making of it, as will be seen from the following
figures, which may be taken as fairly representative. A cord of
ordinary mixed wood, which should measure, after being stacked, 12 ft.
long, 3 ft. wide, and 3 ft. high, will usually, when properly burned,
yield 35 bushels of charcoal, and this, at the low price of 10_d._ will
realize 29_s._ 2_d._ The cost of cutting this cord of wood, which is
generally performed by contract, will be at the least 5_s._, and that
of burning 7_s._; thus leaving a clear profit of 17_s._ 2_d._ per cord
for the wood.
Even roots are made into charcoal, and we have seen whole woods grubbed
up free of expense, the roots being given in return for the labour; but
such work is usually performed during the winter, when labour is at a
discount. Pinewood is not nearly so valuable for charcoal making as
hardwood, but the former is not infrequently made to realize a profit
of from 8_s._ to 10_s._ per cord of wood.
=(3) Bark.=—In the past, the annual home supply of bark was estimated
at about 300,000 tons, but, in addition to this some 30,000 tons were
imported from the Continent; but of late years, owing to the employment
of chemical substitutes, the amount used is much smaller. For tanning
purposes, oak, and occasionally larch, bark is principally in use in
this country, though both willow and alder are largely used for the
same purpose in various countries, more especially in Russia. Although
not at present a valuable product, a small margin of profit, even
at the present low price, will accrue through careful and judicious
management of the bark crop. Of this we are fully convinced. It is,
perhaps, not so well known as it should be that of our two varieties
of oak, _Quercus Robur pedunculata_ and _Q. R. sessiliflora_—the
former contains 15 and the latter only 13 per cent. of tannin. The
branches, too, down to an inch in diameter, contain a relatively higher
proportion of tannin than the bark of the stem.
The stripping and harvesting of oak bark having received notice in a
separate paper, nothing further need be said of these here.
=(4) Faggots.=—These are made of the smaller branches or spray, the
remains of charcoal wood, etc., and tied into bundles similar in
size to a sheaf of wheat. They are either left lying on the ground
or standing upright in threes or fours together for a few days after
being made, previous to being stacked, as they always are for about
six months before being used. In thinning a woodland the faggots are
usually bound up by contract at 4_s._ 6_d._ per hundred, except when
the wood is exceptionally rough and crooked, when another shilling is
added. When stacked and dry they realize about 16_s._ per hundred in
the wood, thus giving a clear profit of 11_s._ 6_d._, if we deduct
4_s._ 6_d._, for binding, per hundred.
In England the demand for these faggots is considerable, they being
used either for kiln purposes, or, when chopped up into smaller
bundles, for fire-lighting. These latter are about 9 in. long, and
half that in diameter, and are bound tightly round the centre with
tarred rope. Previous to the war they were sold at 3_s._ 6_d._ per
hundred.
This is a good and profitable way of getting rid of all superfluous
spray and branches. Brush or kiln faggots, which are largely used for
brick-burning, consist of all refuse woodland scrub, and when tied
up and dry can be sold at from 5_s._ to 6_s._ per hundred for the
brick-kilns. They are made by contract at 2_s._ 6_d._ per hundred. By
the utilizing of this otherwise waste-product, every twig and branch is
carefully gathered together, and the woodlands are thus kept in a neat
and healthy condition.
=Minor Products.=—In addition to firewood, charcoal, faggots, etc.,
which may be considered as the main by-products of the forest and
woodland, there are other minor products, such as are to be met with
largely where coppice wood is grown to any extent, which will repay
the cost of singling out from amongst the above. These may include
flower-stakes, tool-handles, walking-sticks, barrel-hoops, chisel-rods,
etc., all of which sell readily in various parts of the country and
from which considerable profits are realized.
In cutting the coppice wood, the longest and straightest poles are
selected for hop-stakes, the next size for bean stakes, pea-boughs,
etc., and so on until every part of the wood is utilized.
Leaf soil, too, sells readily at 5_s._ per cart load—indeed, near large
towns the demand for this and peat often exceeds the supply. In all
cases, however, it may not be a wise policy to remove this valuable
soil from the woodlands, even at the high price offered.
Half-decayed leaves, too, are much sought after where market gardening
is largely carried on, being used to form forcing-beds, and to preserve
plants and roots from severe frost.
CHAPTER XXIX
FENCING PLANTATIONS
Many different methods of fencing are adopted throughout the country,
each one, no doubt, possessing peculiar advantages according to the
circumstances in which it may happen to be required.
In hilly districts very efficient fences of stones may be made where
these are abundant. Turf dykes may be constructed on high-lying grounds
where stones cannot be readily procured, and iron or wood used wherever
fancy dictates.
The term “dead fence” may be applied to these in contradistinction to
“live fence” or hedge, to which a special chapter is devoted.
To describe even a few of the various wood or iron fences erected
nowadays would be by no means an easy task, but typical examples of
several kinds will be explained.
[Illustration]
=Stone Walls.=—These make capital plantation fences, but they are at
first rather expensive, and unless well built require a good deal
of attention in the way of repairing breaches. They possess a great
advantage over most other fences in the amount of shelter afforded to
the young trees. Two methods of building are usually adopted: firstly,
where stones are abundant, the entire wall may be of these; and,
secondly, where only a limited quantity are available, the wall is
built to a certain height and wires placed atop.
The dry stone wall as this is usually termed, is built without mortar,
with the exception of the cope-stone, which in all cases should be
bedded in and pointed with lime.
From 4 ft. to 5 ft. is the usual height, the foundations being from 22
in. to 24 in. wide, and the wall 14 in. across beneath the cope-stone,
the latter being about 10 in. high and placed on edge. Great care is
necessary in building to see that the “throughs” or binding-stones are
placed in position, as on this depends mainly the efficiency of the
fence. Where wires are used atop, the wall need only be 3 ft. high,
22 in. wide at base, and 12 in. under the cope-stone. The latter are
bedded in mortar, and an extra large stone is placed every 6 ft. for
receiving the iron standard, to which the wires are attached. Slate
slabs, where these are readily procured, may be used for the same
purpose as the iron standards, but they should be built firmly into the
wall, and reach from the base of the foundation. Two, and sometimes
three, wires are used atop of the wall.
=Slate Fences.=—These are commonly in use throughout Wales; in fact,
wherever slate quarries are worked. When well erected and of fairly
regular sized slates, this fence is certainly not to be despised,
and it may be considered as practically indestructible. The expenses
incurred for keeping these fences in repair are also very little, as
they seldom become damaged, and when an upright chances to get broken,
another whole one can easily be substituted, and without interfering
with any other portion of the fence. The size of slate pale, or slab,
as usually termed, is 5 ft. long, 4 in. to 6 in. wide, and about 1 in.
in thickness. In erecting the fence a trench is cut about 12 in. wide
and 8 in. deep, care being taken that the trench is cut perpendicular,
so as to ensure the pales standing in a similar position. These are
placed upright in the trench, about 3 in. apart, with their flat side
close to the perpendicular cut and the soil replaced in the trench and
made firm with a rammer.
A double wire is then tightly interlaced about 3 in. from the top of
the pales, and given a double twist between each, thereby ensuring
great stability by uniting the fence and keeping the pales at equal
distance apart. The straining-posts are also of slate, 6 ft. long, 6
in. wide, and 3 in. thick.
[Illustration: SLATE FENCES]
=Turf Dykes.=—These were formerly much used in moorland and outlying
districts, where stones are not abundant, and where, from the nature of
the soil and situation, hedges would not succeed. They are, at best,
troublesome fences to keep in repair, and require some adjunct either
in the way of wires atop, or, failing this, they must be planted with
gorse or other suitable shrubs. One advantage is the great amount of
shelter they afford to the young plants, while they are, comparatively
speaking, cheap of erection. There are several methods of building turf
dykes, the best being to cut or pare the turf 3 in. in thickness in
one or more lengths to suit the width of the dyke, and of a convenient
breadth: these are laid cross-wise one above the other. Both sides
of the dyke should be built at once, giving the necessary batter as
the work proceeds, and the grassy surface of the turf placed to the
outside. The dyke is usually made 3 ft. in height, 3 ft. wide, and
drawn gradually in to 12 in. at top. A two-rail fence surmounts the
dyke, bringing the total height to 4½ ft. or 5 ft. Sometimes a ditch is
cut alongside the dyke 3 ft. wide, about 2½ ft. deep, and 9 in. wide at
bottom, so as to prevent the farm stock getting at and damaging it, the
soil removed being used in forming the fence. By sowing gorse and broom
seeds on top of the dyke an excellent shelter fence is obtained.
=Wood Fences.=—These are common on almost every estate throughout the
country, especially such as are well wooded, and, owing to the low
prices obtainable for home-grown timber, it is well that such should be
employed as widely as possible. Wooden fences are also much preferred
by many owners of property to those erected either of stone or iron on
account of their rustic appearance.
Wooden fences are, therefore, sure to be largely employed when the
appearance of the property and not too-exacting financial results are
points of importance.
There are many forms of wooden fences adopted, these varying chiefly
according to the particular use to which they are applied. The
following descriptions are of such kinds as are generally in use for
woods and plantations.
Here it might be well to mention in passing that only matured and
seasoned timber should be used in fencing, the cost of erection,
whether the timber be good or inferior, being the same, and every one
knows which will last the longer.
A good strong fence is erected as follows:—Posts, 5 ft. 9 in. long, 4
in. broad, and 2½ in. thick; bars or rails, 9 ft. long, by 3½ in. by
1½ in. Four holes are mortised into the posts for the reception of the
bars, the ends of which are so formed as to overlap each other tightly.
The fence is usually 4 ft. high, and so as to strengthen the horizontal
bars a stake is driven into the ground midway between the larger posts,
and to this the rails are securely nailed. In some cases the posts are
not to be mortised, so that the bars require to be attached by nails.
[Illustration: SAWN WOOD FENCE]
For park clumps, particularly where a substantial and neat fence to
keep back horses, cattle or deer is required, the following, though
rather expensive at first, is largely employed. The entire fence is
made of oak or Spanish chestnut, and is shown on following page.
[Illustration]
[Illustration]
[Illustration: OAK FENCES]
Posts 7 ft. long, 6 in. by 4 in., and run out with the circular saw.
Rails triangular, about 3½ in. to the side. The uprights are rent from
oak or chestnut trees of straight grain, and are usually about ³/₁₆ of
an inch thick, and 5 ft. high. The posts are erected 6 ft. apart, the
rails being mortised into these, and the rent uprights fastened about
2 in. apart by patent rose nails to the horizontal rails. A fence of
this kind, when properly erected, will last for upwards of forty years,
especially if the butts of the posts are charred before being inserted
in the ground.
[Illustration: WIRE FENCE WITH WOODEN POSTS]
Rustic fences for small tree clumps may be of almost any design, but
the following is cheap and easily erected. It is formed of larch posts
6 ft. long, and about 4½ in. diameter, driven into the ground at 6
ft. apart. Two flat or rounded rails about 3 in. by 1¼ in. are nailed
horizontally to these, the lower at 9 in. from the ground and the other
flush with the tops of the posts, which when driven in are 4 ft. from
ground level. The uprights are also of larch, split up the centre and
nailed on the horizontal bars at 2 in. apart. They extend above the top
rail for 7 in., and are sharply pointed so that they cannot be climbed
over.
[Illustration: TOOLS FOR FENCING]
=Wire Fences.=—These may be erected either with iron or wooden
standards and straining-posts. The form most commonly in use for
enclosing woods is that with wooden posts and strainers, these being
made of mature and thoroughly seasoned larch or oak. The strainers are
7 ft. long and 6 in. square, or, if round, about 7 in. in diameter,
while the intermediate posts are 5½ ft. long, and 3½ in. by 3 in., or,
if round, 3½ in. diameter at smallest end. The strainers should be
fitted into the ground at 150 yards apart, and the posts driven firmly
at 6 ft. from each other. At every sharp curve along the line of fence
a stout post, say 5 in. in diameter, should be used. In order to make a
stout fence proof against cattle and sheep, six wires should be used,
the two top No. 6, and the others No. 7 gauge, the distances between
each pair, beginning at the top, being 8, 7, 6, 5½ and 5 in., the lower
being 5 in. from the ground. Brackets for straining the wires should
be attached to each of the strainers, these having this advantage over
the older system of using the straining machine, that the wires can
be loosened or tightened at will, when repairs are found necessary.
The tops of the posts should be rounded off or sawn on angle so as to
prevent the lodgment of water. Iron and wire fences combined are now
commonly in use, and there are so many excellent systems that it would
be invidious to recommend one kind more than another.
Iron box fencing, which consists of standards with double pronged
feet for fixing in the ground and round or flat horizontal bars run
through them, has been largely used and looks neat, being also, if
properly erected, very efficient. Wrought-iron hurdles are sometimes
used for fencing park clumps, and they possess at least this advantage,
that they can be lifted at any time and re-erected should it be found
necessary to remove them from one place to another.
Unclimbable iron fencing, usually in hurdles 7 ft. long, are now much
in use for park fencing, but for general plantation purposes this class
of fencing is too expensive.
=Tree Guards.=—These may either be erected of wood or iron; the former
is, however, preferred on most large estates where timber is plentiful,
and will receive first attention. For large trees whose branches
sweep the greensward an elaborate structure is required, which may
take the form of almost any of those described under wooden fencing.
That entirely formed of oak is to be recommended, or split larch for
uprights, with oak posts and rails may be considered more rustic in
appearance. In any case the guard should be sufficiently high and wide
to prevent cattle and horses reaching over to damage the branches.
[Illustration: TREE GUARDS]
When the trees are destitute of branches for a considerable distance
up the stem, say 8 ft. or 10 ft., a very neat and efficient guard is
made as follows:—Procure a number of larch, oak or Spanish chestnut
poles, 7 ft. high, and about 2½ in. diameter at small end. Thread these
on wires by boring holes in the poles at 2 ft. and 5 ft. from the butt
end, keeping each couple separate by 3 in-long pieces of the same size
of pole, also threaded on the wires. These can be formed on the level,
and when sufficient to embrace the tree have been got together, the
whole may be lifted up and placed in position closely around the trunk.
Another method is to bind the poles together with fencing wire, giving
a double twist between each to keep them at a suitable distance apart.
When a more elaborate fence or guard is required, four posts 7 ft.
long, 4 in. square, and sawn from crooked oak branches are used. The
posts are quite straight for 5 ft. in length, the upper 2 ft. being
inclined outwards, which not only gives the guard a neat appearance,
but is a great preventive against the encroachments of farm stock. The
posts are inserted nearly 2 ft. in the ground, and so as to form a
square around the stem of 4½ ft. to the side, four bars, each 3 in. by
1 in., are nailed horizontally on the straight portions of the posts,
and at equal distances apart from where the angle occurs downwards;
upwards from that three hoop-iron rails are nailed in a similar manner,
the top one being one inch below the level of the crown of the posts.
Iron has a light and neat appearance when used for the top bars, but
wood is often substituted. Another cheap and neat tree guard for using
with the rarer trees, to which horses and cattle have not access, is
made as follows:—Pales 3 ft. long, 2 in. wide, by ⅜ in. thick, are sawn
out and pointed. They are driven into the ground round the tree to be
protected, the tops sloping outwards and 1½ in. apart. Stout tying wire
is then interlaced at two heights from the ground.
Oak or chestnut bark placed loosely around clean-stemmed young trees
will prevent damage by ground game, and is cheap and looks unobtrusive.
CHAPTER XXX
TIMBER MEASURING
To those who are not practically acquainted with the measuring of
home-grown timber the following brief remarks in elucidation of the
subject will be useful. It may, however, be well to mention that timber
measuring is rather a vexed question, some following what is known as
Hoppus’s system, and others advocating that of Horton. The former being
that generally in use amongst timber merchants in this country, and
consequently of greatest value to the forester, the following details
of this system may prove serviceable.
Regarding the timber-measurer’s equipment it may first be necessary to
say a few words. This consists of a 66 ft. Chesterman’s tape-line, or
instead of this a 5 ft. wooden rod, standard girt-strap, or fine cord,
scribing knife, and bent piece of iron, with eye at end for drawing the
girt-strap beneath such trees as the arm cannot readily pass under.
For girthing timber a piece of thin whipcord or string is frequently
used, but as the elasticity of this varies greatly, and has in many
instances led to dispute, a much fairer plan and one that is liable
to no abuse is to use the 12 ft. girt-strap, upon which every inch in
length is reckoned ¼. As the proper quarter-girth can be seen at a
glance on this strap, its adoption will at once remove any chance of
trickery, which may be possible in the use of the string and rule.
For entering measurements the most convenient book is that 9 in. by 4
in., with stiff pasteboard covers, ruled with horizontal lines, and
divided into four vertical columns. To measure proceed as follows:—Mark
a number with the scribe on the butt end of the tree, and enter a
similar number in the first column of the book; this will not only
serve to identify the particular log, but prevent any risk of measuring
twice. Should the taper throughout the whole length of the tree be
tolerably gradual, set down the length in the second column of the
book, opposite the number already entered. At exactly one-half of
the length of the portion measured, take the girth by passing the
girt-strap tightly around the stem. Put this down in the third column
on the same horizontal line as the number and length. Should, however,
the trunk taper not be fairly uniform throughout the entire length, as
frequently happens, several measurements may require to be taken.
For example, a tree may be 36 ft. in length, running with regular taper
for perhaps 12 ft., after which it branches out, reducing the size of
the remaining part very considerably for, say another 12 ft., where it
again branches and leaves the last 12 ft. of a relatively small size.
With such a tree it would be quite impossible to obtain anything like a
correct measurement by taking only one length and girth. The difficulty
is, however, readily got over by first measuring the lower 12 ft., then
the second, and then the third, marking the respective lengths and
girths in the vertical columns as already described.
The measurement of these trees, so far as the field work is concerned,
is now completed, the contents of each tree being found by referring
to “Hoppus’s Measurer”—a book with which every forester should be
supplied. By squaring the quarter-girth in inches, multiplying by the
length in feet, and dividing by 144, the same result will be obtained.
This is, however, a tedious method, especially where large numbers of
trees have to be dealt with, and should only be adopted when Hoppus is
not at hand.
By committing to memory the following short table of quarter-girths
much time in calculating and consulting authorities will be saved.
6-inch quarter-girth will give contents equal to ¼
the entire length in feet.
7 ” ” ” ⅓
8½ ” ” ” ½
10 ” ” ” ⅔
12 ” ” ” 1
13 ” ” ” 1¼
14¾ ” ” ” 1½
16 ” ” ” 1¾
17 ” ” ” 2
19 ” ” ” 2½
21 ” ” ” 3
22½ ” ” ” 3½
24 ” ” ” 4
27 ” ” ” 5
29½ ” ” ” 6
31¾ ” ” ” 7
34 ” ” ” 8
36 ” ” ” 9
The sliding rule is also useful for determining contents.
The proper allowance to be made for bark is half an inch for every
foot of quarter-girth for oak and elm under 12 in. quarter-girth, and
an inch for all beyond, but it is quite impossible to fix upon any
one uniform scale that will meet even the majority of circumstances.
Trees growing in exposed situations will frequently have bark almost
double the thickness of those of a similar size in the woodland. My
plan has been always to allow for the bark of each tree at the time of
measurement.
=Measuring Standing Timber.=—For this a pliable pole 18 ft. long,
marked in feet, and the girt-strap already referred to are the
necessary equipment. In estimating the number of feet of timber upon a
large area, it is not always necessary to measure each tree separately,
particularly when the whole situation is composed of one species, and
the individual trees are about the same age and size, as by multiplying
the total number of trees by the average content of those selected and
measured a very just calculation will be arrived at. Great care in
their selection, and considerable judgment in taking the average will,
however, be required.
[Illustration: MEASURING HEIGHT OF TREES]
When each tree is to be measured separately two assistants will
be required, one to carry the 18-ft. pole, and the other the
girting-strap. Sometimes, when the timber is of great height, jointed
bamboos are used, and a light ladder brought into requisition.
In carrying out the work in this way, the man with the pole declares
the height of the tree, and the one with the tape the quarter-girth.
=Measuring the Height of Trees.=—There are several methods of
ascertaining the heights of trees, but the two following are, perhaps,
the most simple, and the appliances necessary quite inexpensive:—
No 1.—Take three laths, such as bricklayers use for tiling, and nail
them in the shape of the frame shown; _a a_ must be of equal length;
_a_ and _b_ being placed on the ground, the eye must follow up the
larger lath _d d_ until it is in a line with _e_, the top of the tree
or object you wish to measure.
The frame must be placed as level with the bottom of the tree as
possible. Should the ground be very uneven you must give and take
accordingly.
It will be seen that _b_ to _c_ is the same length as _c_ to _e_, and
this gives the height of the tree.
No 2.—Suspend the triangle between the thumb and forefinger of the
left hand, knuckles down, upon the point _a a_, allowing it to swing
freely. The edge _b c_ will then fall perpendicularly, and _c d_ will
be horizontal. The remaining edge _d b_ will then lie at an angle of 45
to the horizon. On this edge are two sights, _e_ and _f_. Look through
_e_ until _f_ is aligned with the tree-top, advancing or retiring till
the sights point exactly to it.
Then, if the observer’s feet are level with the tree root, the height
of the tree is the distance from his feet to the root, plus the height
of the eye from the ground.
The dendrometer is perhaps the most useful instrument for taking the
height of a tree and can be procured from some of our nurserymen.
CHAPTER XXXI
BLASTING AND BURNING TREE ROOTS
[Illustration: BLASTING AND BURNING TREE ROOTS]
Blasting by gunpowder or dynamite is not only the most expeditious
but also the cheapest method of clearing away tree stumps and large
logs. In preparing to blast a stump, great care must be exercised to
bore the hole in the right place and not to use too much explosive.
For blasting powder the hole should be 1½ in. in diameter, and should
penetrate to the centre of the stump. It must not be too low down, lest
the bottom should blow out and the force be expended in shattering the
ground instead of the stump or log. In selecting the spot to bore for
the powder, choose the hardest part of the root and ensure an equal
thickness of wood all round, and even splitting of the log will be the
result. The following is a good way of putting in the powder:—For large
stumps of from 2 ft. to 4 ft. in diameter about 3½ in. depth of coarse
blasting powder should be inserted in a hole 1½ in. in diameter. The
end of the fuse should be put into the centre of the powder, and left
protruding for 15 in. outside the hole, which is filled with dry sand,
consolidated, or packed around the fuse by means of a coarse iron wire.
The outside end of the fuse should be teased out and lighted with a
match, and as it will require over a minute for the fire to reach the
powder, time is given for the operator to find a place of safety.
=Burning Tree Stumps.=—With a 2-in. auger bore a vertical hole in the
centre of the stump from the top towards the bottom. In the side of the
stump, near ground level, bore a horizontal hole towards the centre,
so as to open into the vertical hole, drop some fire down the vertical
hole, and if the wood is at all dry the draught of air entering by
the horizontal hole will, like the draught of a chimney, maintain the
combustion of the fire in the centre, until this slowly spreads and
ultimately burns away the stump.
Another and equally simple method of destroying stumps of trees is as
follows:—In autumn bore a hole 2 in. in diameter and 18 in. deep, put
in 1½ oz. of saltpetre, fill with water, and plug up close. In the
following spring put in the same hole half a gill of kerosene oil and
then light. The stump will smoulder away without blazing, down to every
part of the roots.
=American Method of Blasting.=—At Studley Horticultural College,
Warwickshire, the American method of blasting was successfully carried
out and reported upon by Mr. A. P. Long as follows:—
A hole is bored with a long auger or crowbar in a sloping direction
from one side of the stump to its base, generally from 2½ ft. to 3½ ft.
deep. The bore-hole is cleaned out, and a number of dynamite cartridges
inserted, each being firmly pressed home by a wooden rod. A primer
cartridge containing a detonator is then placed on the top of these,
and the bore-hole is filled with clay and tightly rammed. The primer
is either connected directly with a safety fuse, or to a high-tension
battery, by a cable, and is afterwards fired. As dynamite strikes
downwards as well as upwards, the effect of the explosion is that the
roots and stump are all either ejected or loosened, so that they can be
easily removed by hand.
The American method is less costly and more speedy than the methods
hitherto used in England in removing stumps. If there is no man on
the estate qualified to handle explosives, an expert must be employed
at about £1 per day, besides travelling and hotel expenses. Three
men—an expert and two labourers—can bore holes and blast thirty sound
stumps per day easily. If the stumps are hollow in the centre, two or
three bore holes are necessary for each stump, and in that case twenty
only can be blasted during the day. Taking the pre-war wages of two
labourers at 2_s._ 6_d._ each per day, the cost of boring and firing
averages 2½_d._ per stump, exclusive of the expert’s fee. The expert’s
fee increases the cost by about 2_s._ per stump.
The explosive used is Nobel’s dynamite, in the form of cartridges,
costing 9½_d._ per lb. The average quantity used for each stump is
between 2 lbs. and 3 lbs. (about twenty to thirty cartridges), so that
the cost of the explosive is not more than 2_s._ 6_d._ per stump. The
detonators and fuses required only cost a few pence. Summing up, the
cost per stump is:—
_s._ _d._
Expert’s fee 2 0
Cost of boring 0 2½
Cost of explosive 2 6
Detonators and fuse 0 9½
———————
5 6
Misfires and partial removal of stump may require fresh borings and
further charges of explosive, thus increasing the cost. By employing a
skilled estate hand capable of using explosives instead of an expert,
the expense, however, is greatly diminished.
By the old method of grubbing and jacking, stumps were removed at
Studley some time ago at the high cost of about £2 5_s._ each butt,
and even then success was only partial. In another case, on an estate
in Norfolk, where an old pasture was converted into a plantation of
mixed trees, trenching at the cost of £18 per acre had to be resorted
to on account of the presence of roots and stumps of old trees. In
this case it would have been much cheaper to have removed the stumps
by blasting. The demonstrations at Studley showed that both sound and
unsound stumps could be successfully blasted, and whole trees—an Apple
and an Oak—were also uprooted by the same method with equal success,
using only one bore-hole and about the same charge of explosive. The
timber of the trees so treated, however, is very much split, so that
blasting is only advisable when the timber is considered of little
value.
The particular explosives used are unaffected by damp, and, in
consequence, the method is applicable in both wet and dry situations.
Firing the charges was done at the demonstrations mostly by ladies, and
a photographer was able to get sufficiently near to obtain photographs
of the effect of the explosion without danger. The principal
recommendations of this method, therefore, are cheapness, effectiveness
and safety.
CHAPTER XXXII
PRICES OF CONTRACT OR PIECEWORK
The following prices may be taken as approximating to those paid
generally throughout the country previous to the war.
It may be well to remember, however, that in districts where unusually
high or low wages are paid, so in proportion will be the contract
prices for the various classes of work.
BARKING OAK: _s._ _d._ _s. d._
Barking oak per ton 21 0
Loading bark on wagons ” 3 0
Barking oak per ton of bark 30 0
Chopping bark ” 8 0 to 10 0
COPPICEWOOD:
Cutting out hurdle rods per score 0 1
” hurdle stakes per dozen 0 1
” rake stems ” 0 1
” spade stems ” 0 1
” spick gads ” 0 1
” dahlia stakes ” 0 1
” rose stakes per two dozen 0 1
” besom handles ” 0 1
” kidney-bean stakes 50 in bundle 0 2
” pea stakes per bundle 0 1
” birchwood for besoms ” 0 1
DRAINING: _s._ _d._ _s. d._
Pipe draining, mains, 4 ft. 3 in.
deep, 4 in. or 6
in. pipes per chain 3 0 to 3 6
” ” small, 4 ft. deep, 1½
in. to 3 in. pipes ” 2 0 ” 2 9
” ” small, 4 ft. deep, 1½
in. pipes ” 1 9 ” 2 6
Ditches, open, 36 in. wide at top,
30 in. deep, and 9 in. wide at
bottom per chain 3 0 to 4 0
Scouring out ditto ” 0 9 ” 1 0
Small open ditches, 15 in. to 18 in.
wide at top, 12 in. to 15 in. deep,
and 9 in. wide at bottom ” 1 6 ” 2 6
Scouring out ditto ” 0 6 ” 0 9
FAGGOT-MAKING: _s._ _d._
Making faggots per 100 4 6
” oven faggots ” 3 0
” faggots for fire-lighting ” 1 3
Cutting bands for tying faggots ” 0 4
FELLING AND STUBBING TIMBER: _s. d._ _s. d._
Felling oak timber per ton of 40 ft. 3 0
” other hardwoods ” ” 2 6
” pinewood ” ” 1 6 to 1 9
Stubbing out timber ” ” 3 6 ” 4 0
Cutting underwood from 12 to 15 years’ growth
per acre 9 6 ” 12 0
FENCING: _s. d._ _s. d._
Setting out and mortising 4-holed posts
per score 4 0
” ” ” 3-holed ” ” 3 0
” ” ” 2-holed ” ” 2 6
” ” ” 1-holed ” ” 2 0
” and cleaving rails ” 0 10
” ” ” stakes ” 0 6
” ” ” long poles ” 0 6
” ” ” short poles ” 0 4
Hanging field-gates each 4 0 to 5 0
Fixing stile ” 2 0
Preparing posts, rails and pails for tree guards
per set 0 9
Fixing ditto ” 2 0
Six-wire fence larch posts and creosoted
per chain 35 0 to 40 0
Fixing same ” 4 6 ” 5 0
FIREWOOD: _s. d._ _s. d._
Splitting firewood per cord 4 0 to 6 0
” ” for charcoal ” 2 6 ” 3 0
Cutting and stacking cordwood ” 2 0 ” 3 0
Burning charcoal per bushel of 20 lbs. 0 2
Loading and spreading soil per load 0 5 ” 0 6
GATE-MAKING: _s. d._ _s. d._
Field gate, oak 5-bar 17 0
Posts per pair 23 0
Iron fastening and ironwork complete 5 9
” Fixing 4 6
Making 5-bar oak gate 2 6
” half gate 1 9
” rough wickets 2 0
” wrought wickets 3 0
Sawing hardwood per 100 ft. 3 6 to 4 0
” softwood ” ” 2 6 ” 3 0
HEDGING: _s. d._ _s. d._
Trimming hedges, ordinary size per chain 0 9 to 1 6
Making bank for quick hedge, digging
ditch and planting quick ” 7 6 ” 10 6
” hedge, without bank or ditch,
trenching ground, preparing
bed and planting ” 3 0 ” 4 0
Cleaning young hedges ” 0 8 ” 0 9
Laying hedge and scouring out ditch ” 2 0 ” 3 0
HURDLE-MAKING: _s. d._ _s. d._
Making hurdles per dozen 3 6 to 4 0
” cattle hurdles (wattle) ” 5 0 ” 6 0
” Welsh hurdles, for sheep ” 4 0 ” 5 0
PITTING:
Digging out clay per yard 0 6
” holes for tree planting, 15 in. in diameter
and 15 in. deep per 100 1 6 to 2 6
Inserting plants ” 0 6 ” 1 0
Notch planting ” 2 0 ” 3 0
PREPARING ROAD MATERIAL:
Quarrying stones per yard 0 10 to 1 3
Breaking stones for roads ” 0 8 ” 1 0
CHAPTER XXXIII
FOREST AREA OF THE WORLD
Exclusive of the forests of China, Corea and parts of Africa and South
America, for which there are no available data, the forest area of the
world is approximately 3,800,000,000 acres.
The forests of Europe total upwards of 750,000,000 or, roughly
speaking, about 31 per cent. of the total land area of the Continent;
whilst among non-European countries Canada comes first with 799,000,000
acres, United States, 545,000,000, tropical South America 528,000,000,
Asiatic Russia 348,000,000, and Central Africa 224,000,000.
Finland is, perhaps, the best wooded country in the world, Bosnia,
Herzegovina and Sweden coming next, whilst amongst the least wooded
areas are Great Britain and Portugal, the former including only about 4
per cent. of the total area of the land.
So far as is at present known the following are the approximate areas
of woodlands in the various countries of the world:—
COUNTRY. TOTAL FOREST AREA.
(Acres.)
Russia—
European Russia 461,611,000
Finland 52,500,000
Austria-Hungary—
Austria 23,996,000
Hungary 18,692,000
Croatia and Slavonia 3,769,000
Bosnia and Herzegovina 6,380,000
Sweden 49,390,000
Germany 34,990,000
France 24,021,000
Norway 16,848,000
Spain 16,065,000
Italy 10,115,000
Bulgaria 7,603,000
Roumania 6,367,000
British Isles 3,071,361
Switzerland 2,140,000
Belgium 1,304,000
Servia 3,865,000
Other Countries 4,427,000
——————
747,154,361
Asiatic Russia 348,030,000
India 149,000,000
Ceylon 6,763,000
Japan 57,718,000
Philippine Islands 49,000,000
British Australasia 126,720,000
Cape Colony, Natal, Swaziland and Transvaal 641,000
Madagascar 25,000,000
Barbary States 9,527,000
Central Africa 224,000,000
South America (tropical) 528,000,000
West Indies 42,669,000
Canada 799,360,000
Mexico 25,000,000
Alaska 107,000,000
United States of America 545,000,000
Other Countries including the Straits
Settlement, Java, etc. 6,870,000
————————————
3,050,298,000
The approximate area of woodlands in Great Britain and Ireland are:—
Acres.
England 1,715,473
Scotland 868,409
Wales 184,361
Ireland 303,118
——————————
3,071,361
CHAPTER XXXIV
AFFORESTING WASTE LANDS AND THE FINANCIAL RETURNS THEREFROM
Now that the Government is being urged seriously to consider the
question of afforestation, it may be opportune on my part, as one
of the earliest writers on the subject, to briefly recall what has
already been done in this matter, and to offer some remarks on planting
waste lands, with special reference to cost and the financial returns
therefrom.
For the past thirty years I have not failed to urge on the State and
private owners of woodlands the pressing necessity for planting up
some at least of the waste and unprofitable lands of our country, in
order to provide a sufficiency of timber for the future and leave us
less dependent on the supplies that are annually sent us from abroad.
As stated elsewhere, when we consider that the total area of woodlands
in this country is only a little over 3,029,000 acres, that fully
15,000,000 acres of waste lands exist, and that we annually import
over 10,000,000 tons of timber, at a cost of about £25,000,000, the
necessity for an increased area of woodlands, so that a portion at
least of this vast sum may be kept at home, will be apparent to all,
and the more so as a dearth of timber is imminent, and outside supplies
are being rigidly conserved, while our home demands are ever on the
increase. England being, so to speak, a residential country, the
retention of a certain amount of heath, mountain and common lands, for
the purpose of deer forests, grouse moors, game coverts and golfing
links is imperative, and will considerably reduce the acreage of land
available for afforesting purposes. But I think that I am well within
bounds in alloting out of the 15,000,000 acres of waste land 1,000,000
to afforesting and 14,000,000 to game preserves, deer forests and rough
pasture.
Having personally explored much of the mountain and heath lands in
England and Scotland, and some of the vast tracts of bog land in
Ireland (the latter extending to fully one million acres), I have
carefully computed that of land up to 1,200 feet altitude, where
timber would grow perfectly well, about 9,000,000 acres are available
for afforesting purposes. As far as I have been able to find out, the
average rental of the ground referred to is a fraction under 3_s_. per
acre, and I am quite confident that any land which does not bring in
at least three times that amount for grazing or agricultural purposes
would be more profitably employed in carrying a crop of timber.
It is unfortunate that much of these waste lands are private property,
the owners of which, even could they afford it, have little inclination
to sink, for a period of say twenty years, the necessary capital
required to be expended on the formation of woods and plantations.
Equally unfortunate is it that owing to an injudicious system of
management many plantations in this country have been wrongly formed—in
so far as adaptation of soil and trees are concerned, the results being
that financially speaking the woods are a failure, and proprietors in
consequence fight shy of further planting operations. I have examined
and reported on several of such woods in various parts of the country,
one of the most noticeable being in Nottinghamshire, where a large
area of ground was planted with a crop of oak, for which tree the soil
was quite unsuitable, the result being that over the whole ground the
average production of timber per tree was under 10 cubic feet in sixty
years. When pressing home the question of woodland extension I have
frequently been confronted by the argument that past experience does
not warrant further expenditure in that way. That this is true cannot
be denied, but let us hope that it will be remedied in the near future
by the better education of our foresters and by greater attention being
given to the relation of trees and soil.
With the wholesale felling of timber for war purposes and the
disinclination of owners of land to engage in extensive planting
operations, the question naturally arises: What is the most feasible
way of overcoming the difficulty?
In answer, and without the slightest hesitation, I would say that
the State should acquire and plant suitable waste lands at the rate
of 40,000 acres annually for a period of twenty-five years. Such
lands could, in England, Scotland and Wales, be gradually and cheaply
acquired by the State, while in Ireland there are vast tracts of peat
bog which their owners would willingly hand over to the Government at
the present time at a small cost per acre. Taking the British Isles as
a whole, the cost of procuring suitable lands would be at an annual
rental of about 3_s._ per acre, or 40_s._ per acre for purchase. On
the Gwydyr Estate, Carnarvonshire, 7,412 acres of land, described as
rough grazing and sheep walk, were lately sold by public auction for
£15,670, or at the rate of £2 2_s._ 3_d._ per acre. I have little faith
either in the State advancing money to landed proprietors towards
afforesting, or in municipalities coming to the front as planters of
woodlands. The State would be the best custodian of forest property for
the simple reason that the State only can readily acquire the needed
land in sufficient quantity and on the best terms, and I am fully
convinced that plantations formed under Government supervision will, in
an economic sense at least, be far more successful than those planted
either by private persons or public bodies. Again, the continuity
of ownership under such a scheme, together with the ample resources
guaranteed by State control, would both largely contribute towards a
successful issue in such an undertaking.
The difficulty of housing and providing for the workmen employed in
afforesting out-of-the-way lands has been brought to my notice, but
from personal experience of similar work in Scotland and Wales I
anticipate little difficulty in that way. In these cases, where a good
deal of the work was carried out by contract, the workmen gladly walked
to and from the adjoining villages each day, often a distance of three
or four miles, bringing their midday meal with them, which was heated
or cooked on the ground. Then, as the plantations increase in age
and size, and sawmills are required, the ever-increasing industry so
created will cause hamlets to spring up in the wooded regions, just as
we find is the case in mining and quarrying districts.
After careful computation I have no hesitation in saying that the area
of plantations in the United Kingdom could at once be doubled by the
planting of waste lands which at present do not bring in over 2_s._ per
acre per year of rental, with infinite benefit to the country generally
and a vast increase in the value of land both to the owner and farmer
who cultivates it. In the matter of afforesting, a grain of practice
is worth a ton of theory, and as I have personally supervised every
operation, from marking out the plantation boundary on the exposed
hillside, to draining, fencing, planting, thinning and disposing
of the produce, my opinions on the question are at least worthy of
consideration.
=The Approaching Scarcity of Timber.=—Than timber no article is
probably more indispensable to the welfare of a nation, entering
extensively as it does into almost every trade and industry. For
England, therefore, with an ever-increasing import, the possibility
of a dearth of timber must be regarded with the keenest anxiety, more
particularly as this would entail prohibitive prices and seriously
cripple the trade of the country. The following table, as reported to
the Washington Bureau of Manufactures, will show at a glance the annual
imports of timber of the principal countries of Europe:—
England 16,342,600 cub. yds.
Germany 11,766,667 ”
France 8,496,300 ”
Belgium 1,897,777 ”
Italy 915,148 ”
Denmark 849,630 ”
Spain 392,222 ”
Switzerland 313,778 ”
In face of this it is only reasonable to suppose that the Government
will act promptly in the matter, remembering that no scheme of
afforesting, however extensive or well ordered, can bring the necessary
relief for at least forty years after its inception. For all this, and
in spite of numerous warnings as to the pressing necessity for tree
planting and the ominous signs of a timber famine, little or nothing
has been done, save the holding of meetings by the Board of Agriculture
and the purchase of a few hundred acres of waste land in Scotland.
To sum up briefly, the situation is this:—England’s imports before the
war rapidly increased from a trifle under 3¼ million loads in 1864 to
fully 10 million loads in 1906, thus showing an increment of fully 7
million loads in forty-two years.
Most European countries have large internal supplies of timber, so
that, by a system of conserving and protective tariffs, the pinch of
want would not be felt severely for years to come. But not so England,
which is almost wholly dependent on supplies from abroad.
According to the Secretary of the Agricultural Department of
Washington, the area of forests in the United States is 700 million
acres, but even now the States are more or less dependent on Canada,
and actually receive the entire surplus from that country. But
regarding the United States, ex-President Roosevelt said: “If the
present rate of forest destruction is allowed to continue with nothing
to offset it, a timber famine in the future is inevitable. Remember
that you can prevent such a famine occurring by wise action taken in
time; but once the famine occurs there is no possible way of hurrying
the growth of trees necessary to relieve it.” Again, the late Mr. Lewis
Miller, who had vast forests both in Sweden and Nova Scotia, told me
that in twenty-five years neither the United States nor Canada will
have much timber left, while Sweden and Finland are already played out.
“I am also of opinion,” he said, “that during the next twenty-five
years timber will be double its present price, and that it will not
only pay to plant land valued at 3_s._ per acre, but that worth 20_s._
per acre.” These are no idle words, but the records of those who know
well what they are talking about; neither are the writers in any
sense pessimists. With all these warnings from men whose business it
is to study the question and who are fully qualified to advance an
opinion, surely it is time that we took up seriously the question of
afforestation.
It may be said by some that the timber of our foreign possessions
will partly fill up the gap, but this is not the case. Indian timber,
principally teak, is not in request to any appreciable extent, while
the great African forests are hardwoods, and as a rule unsuited to our
wants. The forests of South America are on a par with those of India
and Africa, while China and Japan, as also Australia, require more
timber than they possess.
=Cost of suitable Land for Afforesting.=—When in the past the question
of afforesting has been brought forward, the usual outcry has been
that suitable land is too expensive to buy. But this argument will no
longer suffice, for, as I have before pointed out, excellent land for
the cultivation of high-class timber can be procured in considerable
quantity at about £2 per acre. Through the kindness of Lord Ancaster’s
estate agent, I have been allowed to look over the sale contracts of
several parts of the Gwydyr Estate, in Carnarvonshire, and from these
I find that 7,412 acres were disposed of, at an average price of £2
2_s._ 3_d._ per acre. The ground was excellent for the production of
timber, as the larch on other adjoining lands clearly evidenced. Again
the Crown recently purchased 12,500 acres in Scotland at the modest
rental of about £2 per acre. Other instances could be quoted, but the
above suffice to show that land in every way suited for profitable tree
planting can be bought at probably less than £2 per acre.
It is perhaps unfortunate that many of these waste lands are private
property, the owners of which, even if they could afford it, have
little inclination to sink for a period of, say, twenty-five years
the necessary capital required to be expended on the formation of
plantations. But all this would be obviated by State ownership of the
woodlands. Private individuals, or, indeed, public bodies, labour
under many disadvantages in respect of afforestation, not the least,
as before stated, being the quarter of a century required before the
money expended in planting can be even partially recovered, while a
systematic method of cultivation and large wooded areas are first
necessities to successful timber culture. It is therefore preferable
in every way that the Government should take up the question of tree
planting on a large scale, the necessary land being available at a
moderate cost per acre.
=Cost of Forming Plantations.=—This will vary greatly with the manner
in which the work is carried out, the particular district of the
country, nature of soil and rate of wages paid, as also whether fencing
and draining have to be engaged in. The difference in cost between
“notch” and “pit” planting is very considerable, and the fact that
the former method is almost exclusively adopted on the rough grounds
throughout Scotland accounts mainly for the smaller first outlay on
Scottish plantations. Thus at Grantown, Strathspey, the Countess of
Seafield’s estate, Mr. Thomson, the very capable wood manager, has
planted during the past forty-seven years upwards of 20,000 acres
of woodlands, at a cost, including fencing, of rather under £2 per
acre. In England, however, where, for various reasons, pit planting
is adopted, and larger plants are used, the cost varies from £5 to £6
per acre. For all practical purposes, however, the cost of forming
plantations may be put down at, say, £5 per acre, as an average taken
from the following figures will show:—
ENGLAND AND WALES.
£ _s._ _d._
Yorkshire, at 600 ft. altitude, cost of planting
and fencing per acre 4 18 9
Kent, fencing and planting ” 6 3 0
Lincolnshire ” ” ” 8 0 0
Gloucestershire ” ” ” 7 10 0
Carnarvonshire ” ” ” 5 2 0
SCOTLAND.
Inverness-shire, Glengloy Estate, 800 ft. altitude,
cost of fencing and planting per acre 3 10 0
Ross-shire, up to 1,200 ft. altitude, cost of
fencing and planting per acre 2 10 0
Perthshire (planting only) ” 2 10 0
Blair Athol, 3,665 acres, fencing and
planting ” 2 10 0
Grantown, Strathspey, fencing and
planting ” 2 0 0
IRELAND.
Wicklow, 700-900 ft. altitude, fencing and
planting per acre 4 13 11
Armagh (bogland), fencing and planting ” 5 2 0
Another instance in Scotland may be recorded, in which 550 acres were
planted at a cost of £1,178, or at the rate of £2 2_s._ 10_d._ per
acre. This included for fencing, £164 18_s._ 4_d._; drainage, £123
15_s._; plants, £520 10_s._; planting, £368 16_s._ 8_d._
In connexion with these figures, it may be reassuring to state that
in each case a strict account of the expenditure involved had been
carefully noted, and the returns given are practically correct. The
average cost, therefore, taking Great Britain as a whole, would be
about £5 per acre for fencing and planting the ground. The above-named
plantations, too, were formed on the very class of ground of which we
have so much lying idle or bringing in only a few shillings rental
per acre, in various parts of the country. The Ross-shire plantation
referred to was a bleak and barren moorland which the crofters, who
used it as a common for their cattle and sheep, refused to rent at
1_s._ per acre per annum, while at Strathspey the 20,000 acres of
land were let out previous to planting at 8_d._ per acre per annum.
Vast tracts of the bare hillsides of Wales are only bringing in a few
shillings of rental per acre. It should be remembered that all the
above-named plantations were formed on bleak, exposed moorlands—the
very class of waste lands that I have so strongly advocated as being
suitable for the woodlands of the future, and of which at the present
time there are about 15,000,000 acres lying idle in various parts of
the kingdom. Therefore the cost of planting may be considered as or
about £5 per acre. This, with £2 5_s._ for cost of purchase and 5_s._
for incidental expenses, would bring the initial total expenditure to
£7 10_s._ per acre. Elsewhere I have suggested that 1,000,000 acres
should be planted over a period of twenty-five years, at the rate
of 40,000 acres per year, which would entail an outlay of £300,000
annually—a small sum when compared with the £25,000,000 expended each
year by this country on supplies brought from abroad.
But there is another point that I should like to touch upon whilst
dealing with the formation of plantations, and that is that the work
should only be entrusted to the efficient and practical wood manager,
who is fully conversant with the whole routine of woodland work. It
is frequently urged that forestry does not pay, but where this holds
good, the cause is always traceable to injudicious planting and wrong
methods of management. No more can we expect the gardener, gamekeeper,
estate joiner, or even the land agent to undertake economical timber
culture than we could expect the forester to carry out successfully
the duties of any of these individuals. Wrongly formed plantations
are, unfortunately, far too common, in so far, at least, as adaptation
of soil and trees are concerned, the result being that, financially
speaking, the woods are a failure, and proprietors, in consequence,
fight shy of further planting operations. When pressing home the
question of the extension of plantations, I have more than once been
confronted by the statement that past experience does not warrant
further expenditure in that way. That this is true cannot be denied, in
many instances at least, but, then, as above stated, faulty methods of
management are alone responsible for the failure.
=Financial Returns from Tree Planting.=—Though it must be admitted
that, in the majority of cases at least, the financial returns cannot
be accepted as strictly correct (in most cases they are too low),
owing to the woods being treated for other than commercial purposes,
yet in not a few instances, where neither game-rearing nor ornamental
effect have to be considered, the yield of timber and gross returns
for a stated number of years are perfectly reliable. Of course, where
game coverts and underwood, or where the perfect development of the
trees, as in ornamental plantations, are matters of first importance,
and require that the individual specimens be scattered thinly over the
ground, the greatest yield of the best quality of timber cannot be
expected; but where, as on various Scottish and English estates, the
trees are grown thickly together and solely for their economic value,
the case is quite different, as the returns given below will attest.
One hundred acres of common land were planted from 1852 to 1862.
Larch was the principal crop, with a few beech, Scotch pine, spruce
and silver fir. The plantation was thinned at intervals from 1871 to
1884, the thinnings being sold for close on £500, but many trees were
used for fencing and estate purposes generally. The whole plantation
was felled in 1907, and realized fully £4,500, or at the rate of £45
per acre. The larch on the lower portion averaged 23¼ ft. per tree,
but on the exposed ground the trees were only about one-third of that
dimension. This plantation has a northern aspect, and is situated at
from 800 ft. to 1,300 ft. above sea-level. After allowing for the cost
of planting and interest on the money expended, the annual return
per acre comes to about 20_s._ The adjoining heath-covered lands let
for about 2_s._ 6_d._ per acre. Again, on the Countess of Seafield’s
estates, Scotland, on grazing land which formerly brought in 8_d._ per
acre, Mr. Thomson, the woods manager, tells me that, at the age of
forty-seven years, Scotch fir realized £40 per acre; while in another
wood the individual trees brought 24_s._ 6_d._ each.
A larch plantation of 208 acres, on a steep hillside, was felled at the
age of fifty years. The actual returns during that period were: from
thinnings, £4,500; from final felling, £14,500; or fully £90 per acre.
The original cost of planting was under £5 per acre, and the value of
the land at thirty years’ purchase £7 10_s._ per acre, thus leaving a
balance of fully £78 per acre at the age of fifty years.
The extensive hillside plantations formed by the late Lord Powerscourt
in Ireland, those at Glendalough in the same country, formed by the
Duke of Atholl between Dunkeld and Blair Atholl, those at Glengoy, in
Aberdeenshire, at Strathkyle in Ross-shire, and at Gwydyr and Penrhyn
Castle in the Principality of Wales—all of which were formed over
thirty-five years ago, account of the cost of formation and management
being strictly kept—these surely afford sufficient evidence not only
of the profitable returns to be obtained from woodlands, but of the
feasibility of afforesting mountain lands with vast benefit in the
way of shelter to the dreary, treeless, and bleak, exposed uplands
where the planting has been carried out. As far as actual profits are
concerned, it will be prudent to assume that for the first twenty years
no return whatever will be derived from hillside plantations, the sales
of thinnings up to that time barely covering the expense of cutting
and interest on first cost. From twenty-five to forty years an annual
return of fully 12_s._ per acre has in many instances been forthcoming,
while the value of the standing crop at the latter age has been found
to vary from £50 to £70 per acre. I do not think that these figures
would be, generally speaking, too high, as at Balfour, in Scotland, the
larch at forty-three years’ growth on a hillside were valued at 20_s._
each, while a valuation of 21_s._ per tree was made of larch on the
slopes of the Snowdon range of hills, in Wales, at the age of forty
years. But many similar instances could be recorded, and are constantly
coming before those who have to do with the valuing and felling of
timber.
The late Mr. Lewis Miller, who had probably a larger experience of home
woods than any other person, has given me some valuable and interesting
information regarding what he has paid per acre for larch in various
parts of Scotland. In twenty years, between 1870 and 1890, Mr. Miller
has cut down growing timber to the value of over £250,000. A great many
of the plantations were fifty years old, and yielded over £50 per acre
when finally cut down, apart from the value of the thinnings taken out
of them previously to the time they were cut down. To one proprietor
in Aberdeenshire he paid £60,000 for plantations about fifty years of
age, and the price worked out on an average at fully £50 per acre.
One particular plantation of larch in Aberdeenshire, about seventy
years old, yielded £150 per acre; another plantation, all larch, about
forty-four years of age gave over £100 per acre, and these plantations
were for the most part growing on what was formerly pasture or waste
land, and cost for planting and fencing from £2 to £2 10_s._ per acre.
It will be needless to multiply cases in which poor lands worth only
from 1_s._ to 3_s._ per acre have been made to realize by judicious
tree planting as much as 20_s._ per acre for fifty or sixty years
with a final crop worth from £50 to £75 per acre. All the plantations
above referred to are excellent object-lessons of the possibilities of
the British Isles for the production of high-class timber if woods are
properly planted and managed.
=Advantages of Tree Planting.=—Not only from a strictly financial point
of view but also from a hygienic sense standpoint, plantations are of
the utmost importance.
For shelter for farm stock, for improving the agricultural value of
the lower lying lands, and for the part they play in clothing and
ornamenting our bare commons and hillsides, their value can hardly
be over-estimated. Twenty-five years ago I formed a plantation on
a spur of the Snowdon range of hills, in Wales, where the fierce,
long-continued and hard-hitting blasts were of almost constant
occurrence, and the amount of shelter and warmth it now affords to the
farm stock and lower lying lands would hardly be credited. Previous to
the formation of this particular plantation, at altitudes varying up to
600 ft., the adjoining lands were quite incapable of cultivation, but
now crops are gradually creeping up the hillsides, while the farm stock
find the much-needed shelter and warmth that they were formerly denied.
So great has been the benefit of this wood both to man and beast that
the farmer on whose land it was planted speaks of it as “a Godsend.”
Other similar cases in Wales might be mentioned, as for instance the
plantations on the Gwydyr and Penrhyn Estates, and also those near
Abergele, where the judicious planting up of rocky and almost worthless
land has converted dreary and inhospitable districts into the most
fashionable and expensive residential property. In many parts of
Scotland, particularly Perth, Inverness and Aberdeenshire, equally good
results have been obtained by judicious tree planting.
Another notable advantage gained by the planting of trees lies in the
provision of profitable work for the unemployed. As a special chapter
is devoted to this important subject, it need only be mentioned here.
It should not be overlooked that excellent results have followed in
the wake of planting bog lands in Ireland. In 1862 my father formed
several plantations there, a full account of which will be found in
the _Transactions of the Highland and Agricultural Society of Scotland_
for 1873. I examined these woods and was agreeably surprised at the
height which the trees had attained, the cubic contents of the timber,
and the price realized. Incidentally, it might be noticed that the
ground previously to planting was a dreary, heath-clad waste, only
suitable for snipe-shooting and the production of turf for fuel.
Many other instances of the numerous advantages to be derived from
a well-organized system of tree planting could be cited, not the
least important being the greater facilities that would be afforded
for disposing of the timber. In many outlying districts all over the
country far removed from road and rail, it is difficult to get rid of
the small amount of timber that is periodically cut down, but were
larger quantities handled and a continuity of supply forthcoming, I
feel certain that timber merchants would be prompted to make special
transit arrangements. More than once I have been asked by Irish
landowners to recommend buyers of good larch and oak timber, but, after
negotiation, I have invariably been told by the merchant that the
quantity offered was far too small to allow of special facilities for
delivery being provided, since the timber was far away from road and
rail. They stated, however, that if a specified number of cubic feet
of good timber could be guaranteed annually for a number of years they
were quite prepared to buy. The same obstacles to the sale of timber
have been experienced in Scotland and remote parts of Wales. In these
cases a continuity of supply, such as would be forthcoming if my scheme
of afforesting was carried out, would ensure speedy sales at moderate
prices in places where at present it is difficult, if not impossible,
to dispose of small quantities except at ruinously low prices.
INDEX
A PAGE
Abele Poplar for Town Planting, 101
Acacia, False, for Town Planting, 102
Advantages of Tree Planting, 293
Afforesting Waste Lands, 282
_Agaricus melleus_, 218
Ailanthus for Town Planting, 101
Alder as Timber, 240
—— Common, for Seaside Planting, 78
—— for Economic Planting, 52
—— —— Exposed Positions, 52
—— —— Ornamental Planting, 117
—— —— Seaside ” 78
—— Hoary, for Seaside Planting, 78
Almond for Town Planting, 107
American Winged Elm for Exposed Planting, 70
Andromeda for the Shade, 192
Apple as Timber, 240
Appliances used in Forestry, 153
_Araucaria Imbricata_ Seed, 14
Area of Woodlands, 280
Arrangement of Plantations, 33
Ash as Timber, 240
—— for Economic Planting, 48
—— —— Exposed ” 71
—— —— Ornamental ” 132
—— —— Seaside ” 79
—— —— Town ” 104
—— Seed, 11
Aspect of Home Nursery, 26
Aspen for Seaside Planting, 78
Atlantic Cedar for Seaside Planting, 82
—— —— for Economic Planting, 65
_Aucuba Japonica_ for Town Planting, 105
—— —— —— Game Coverts, 179
—— —— —— Hedges, 189
Austrian Pine for Economic Planting, 65
—— —— —— Exposed Planting, 69
—— —— —— Ornamental Planting, 118
—— —— —— Town Planting, 108
—— —— Seed, 11
Autumn-tinted Foliage Trees for Ornamental Planting, 123
Autumn Work in Home Nursery, 30
B
Bark, 255
—— Stripping——Tools used, 222
Barking Oak, 220-222
Barron’s Transplanting Machine, 140
Beam Tree for Seaside Planting, 77
—— —— in London, 103
Bedford Willow for Seaside Planting, 85
Beech Coccus, 205
Beech as Timber, 246
—— for Economic Planting, 49
—— —— Exposed ” 71
—— —— Hedge ” 187
—— —— Ornamental ” 188
—— —— Seaside ” 80
—— Seed, 11
Beetle Pine, 193
_Berberis Darwinii_ for Game Coverts, 180
—— —— —— Hedge Planting, 189
—— —— —— Seaside, 84
Bhotan Pine for Ornamental Planting, 117
Birch as Timber, 240
—— for Economic Planting, 53
—— —— Exposed ” 71
—— —— Ornamental ” 122
—— —— Seaside ” 79
—— —— Town ” 104
—— Seed, 11
Bird Cherry for Exposed Planting, 71
—— —— —— Town Planting, 104
Black Italian Poplar for Town Planting, 101
Blackberry for the Shade, 192
Bladder Senna for Town Planting, 106
—— Rust or Cluster-Cup, 219
Blasting Tree Roots, 273
Bog Soils, Trees for, 136
_Bostrichus Laricis_, 194
—— _Typographus_, 194
Box for Hedge Planting, 188
—— —— Game Covert, 177
—— Thorn for Seaside Planting, 83
Bracing a Tree, 159
Briar for Hedge Planting, 188
British Oak for Hedge Planting, 111
—— Timber and its Uses, 240
Broom for Seaside Planting, 84
Buckthorn, Sea, for Seaside Planting, 82
Burning Tree Stumps, 274
Butcher’s Broom for Game Coverts, 182
—— —— —— Carpeting in Shade, 192
By-products of the Forest, 250
C
Canadian Poplar for Town Planting, 101
Cedar for Seaside Planting, 82
Cephalonian Fir for Ornamental Planting, 118
Chalky Soil for Tree Planting, 130, 136
Charcoal, 253
—— Making, 226
—— Comparative Value of Wood, 231
—— Pit, 231
—— Kiln Burning, 231
—— Uses of, 232
Cherry as Timber, 240
—— for Exposed Planting, 71
—— —— Ornamental Planting, 118
Chestnut as Timber, 240
—— for Town Planting, 104
—— —— Economic Planting, 51
Clay Soil for Tree Plantations, 138
Cleaning and Pruning Hedges, 189
Climbers for Town Planting, 107
Cluster Pine for Planting, 81
—— —— —— Ornamental Planting, 118
—— —— —— Seaside Planting, 81
Cockchafer, 202
Colchic Laurel for Hedge Planting, 189
Collecting Tree Seeds, 8
Common Alder for Seaside Planting, 78
—— Gorse for Seaside Planting, 84
Common Holly for Seaside Planting, 84
—— Ivy for Carpeting in Shade, 191
—— —— —— Town Planting, 107
—— Laburnum for Seaside Planting, 84
—— Laurel for Hedge Planting, 189
—— London Plane for Town Planting, 98
—— Mulberry for Town Planting, 102
Comparative Value of Woods for Charcoal Making, 231
Conifers suitable for Chalky Soil, 131
—— —— —— Reclaimed Peat Bog, 129
—— for Economic Planting, 57
—— —— Town Planting, 108
—— Seeds, 9
—— Seaside, 80
Contract Work, Prices of, 277
Contents, xi
Coppice Wood Management, 170
—— Cost of, 173
Cornelian Cherry for Ornamental Planting, 118
—— —— —— Hedgerow Planting, 111
Corsican Pine for Economic Planting, 59
—— —— —— Exposed Planting, 70
—— —— —— Ornamental Planting, 118
—— —— —— Seaside Planting, 81
—— —— Seeds, 11
Cost of Forming Plantations, 287-288
_Cratægus Pyracantha_ for Town Planting, 108
Cricket Bat Willow, 54
Cryptomeria for Ornamental Planting, 118
Cucumber Tree for Town Planting, 101
_Cupressus Lawsoniana_, Seed of, 11
—— —— for Town Planting, 109
Currant, Flowering, for Town Planting, 106
Cut-leaved Trees, 121
Cutting Osiers, 247
Cypress for Ornamental Planting, 118
—— —— Seaside Planting, 82
D
_Daphne Laureola_ for Seaside Planting, 84
—— _Mezereon_ for Seaside Planting, 84
Darwin’s Barberry for Seaside Planting, 84
Deciduous Cypress for Ornamental Planting, 117
Dedication, v
Dogwood for Seaside Planting, 83
—— —— Charcoal, 232
Double Furze for Town Planting, 106
Douglas Fir for Economic Planting, 63
—— —— Seed, 12
Draining——Tools used, 37
—— and Clearing Ground for Plantations, 36
Dried Leaves as Litter, 251
E
Economic Planting, 47
—— —— Trees for, 48
Elder for Exposed Planting, 70
—— —— Seaside Planting, 76
Elegant Cryptomeria for Ornamental Planting, 118
Elm, as Timber, 240
—— English for Hedge Planting, 111
—— for Economic Planting, 51
—— —— Exposed Planting, 70
—— —— Seaside Planting, 79
—— —— Town Planting, 104
—— Scotch, for Seaside Planting, 85
—— Seed, 12
—— Tree Destroyer, 199, 200
English Elm for Hedge Planting, 111
—— Maple for Seaside Planting, 79
_Euonymus Japonicus_ for Seaside Planting, 84
—— _Radicans Variegata_ for Carpeting in Shade, 192
Evergreen Honeysuckle for Town Planting, 107
—— Oak for Seaside Planting, 79
Exposed Ground, Planting, 72
F
Faggots, 255
False Acacia for Town Planting, 102
Felling——Tools used, 43
Felted Beech Coccus, 205
Fencing, 97
—— Plantations, 257
—— Tools used, 264
Fern-leaved Beech for Ornamental Planting, 118
Financial Returns of Planting, 290
Firewood, 252
_Fitzroya Patagonica_ for Ornamental Planting, 118
Flowering Currant for Town Planting, 106
—— Trees for Ornamental Planting, 116
Forest Area of the World, 280
Forest By-Products, 250
—— Produce, Utilizing, 250
Forestry and the War, 1
Formation of Game Coverts, 174
—— —— Plantations, 32
_Forsythia Viridissima_ for Town Planting, 106
Fountain Willow, 121
Fruit Trees for Ornamental Planting, 116
Fungi on Trees, 212
Furze for Hedge Planting, 188
—— —— Town Planting, 106
G
Game Coverts, Formation and Management, 184
_Gaultheria Procumbens_ for Carpeting in Shade, 192
—— _Shallon_ for Carpeting in Shade, 192
—— —— —— Game Coverts, 181
Giant Arborvitæ for Economic Planting, 64
—— —— —— Seaside Planting, 81
Goat Moth, 200
—— Willow for Seaside Planting, 78
Golden Willow for Ornamental Planting, 117
Gorse for Hedge Planting, 188
—— —— Seaside Planting, 84
Grasses for the Sea-Coast, 86
—— —— Woodland Drives, 34
Gravelly Soil for Tree Plantation, 131-137
Green Tree Box for Game Coverts, 177
_Griselinia Littoralis_ for Seaside Planting, 83
—— —— —— Town Planting, 105
Groundsel Tree for Seaside Planting, 84
H
Hard-wooded Trees for Economic Planting, 47
Hardwoods for Chalky Soil, 130
—— —— Clay Soils, 132
—— —— Gravelly Soil, 131
—— —— Ironstone Soils, 133
—— —— Reclaimed Peat Bog, 129
Hawthorn Seed, 12
Hazel Nuts, 12
Heather for the Shade, 192
Heaven, Tree of, for Town Planting, 101
Hedges as Fences, 185
—— Formation of, 184
—— Management, 184
—— Ornamental, 188
—— Planting, 186
—— Pruning, 189
Hedgerow and Field Planting, 110
Hedging Tools used, 185
Height of Trees, Measuring, 271
Hoary Alder for Seaside Planting, 78
Holly as Timber, 240
—— Berries, 12
—— Fly, 204
—— for Game Coverts, 181
—— —— Hedge Planting, 188
—— —— Seaside Planting, 84
Home Nursery, 24
—— —— Spring Work, 28
—— —— Summer Work, 30
—— —— Autumn Work, 30
—— —— Winter Work, 30
Honeysuckle for Town Planting, 107
Hornbeam as Timber, 241
—— for Exposed Planting, 70
—— —— Hedge Planting, 113, 167
—— —— Seaside Planting, 80
—— —— Town Planting, 104
Horse Chestnut as Timber, 241
—— —— for Town Planting, 104
—— —— Seeds, 12
Hot and Dry Soils, Shrubs for, 134
How to Prune, 157
Huntingdon Willow for Seaside Planting, 77
_Hypericum Calycinum_ for Seaside Planting, 84
I
Imperial Alder for Ornamental Planting, 117
Index, 295
Indian Bean for Town Planting, 102
Insects and Diseases Injurious to Forest Trees, 193
Introduction, ix
Ironstone Soil for Plantations, 133, 138
Italian Poplar for Town Planting, 101
Ivy for Carpeting in Shade, 191
—— —— Town Planting, 107
J
Japanese Cryptomeria for Ornamental Planting, 118
_Jasminum Nudiflorum_ for Town Planting, 108
Juneberry for Ornamental Planting, 118
Juniper, Savin for towns, 109
K
Kentucky Coffee-Tree for Town Planting, 106
Kilmarnock Willow, 121
Kiln Burning Charcoal, 231
L
Laburnum, Common, for Seaside Planting, 84
—— Moth, 202
—— Scotch, for Seaside Planting, 84
Lackey Moth, 200
Land Sale on the Gwydyr Estate, 287
Larch Aphis, 197
—— Canker, 213
—— Cones, 12
—— Disease, Cause and Remedy, 213
—— for Economic Planting, 57
—— —— Exposed Planting, 71
—— —— Hedge Planting, 114
—— Miner, 195
—— Sawfly, 198
—— Timber, 241
Large-Fruited Cypress for Seaside Planting, 82
Laurel Spurge for Carpeting in Shade, 192
Laurustinus for Game Coverts, 179
—— —— Hedge Planting, 188
—— —— Seaside Planting, 83
—— —— Town Planting, 107
Leaf-Shedding Fungus, 218
Levelling, 38
_Leycesteria Formosa_ for Town Planting, 106
_Ligustrum Coriaceum_ for Town Planting, 105
—— _Ovalifolium_ for Seaside Planting, 84
Lilacs for Seaside Planting, 84
—— —— Town Planting, 84
Lime as Timber, 241
—— for Hedge Planting, 113
—— —— Town Planting, 103
Litter of Dried Leaves, 251
Lombardy Poplar for Hedge Planting, 112
—— —— —— Town Planting, 101
London Plane for Town Planting, 98
Lymegrass for Seaside Planting, 84
M
Magnolias for Ornamental Planting, 118
—— for Town Planting, 101
_Mahonia Aquifolia_ for Game Coverts, 180
Maidenhair Tree for Town Planting, 100
Manna Ash for Ornamental Planting, 118
Manufacture of Charcoal, 226
Manure for Home Nursery, 26
Maple as Timber, 241
—— for Seaside Planting, 79
Maram for Seaside Planting, 84
Measuring Height of Trees, 272
Measuring Standing Timber, 270
Mezereon Laurel for Carpeting in Shade, 192
Minor Products of Forest Waste, 256
Mountain Ash for Exposed Planting, 70
—— —— —— Seaside Planting, 78
—— —— —— Town Planting, 104
—— —— Seed, 12
Mulberry for Town Planting, 102
N
Norway Maple for Seaside Planting, 76
—— Spruce for Economic Planting, 64
Notch Planting, 44
Nursery, Formation and Management, 24
—— Home, its Formation and Management, 24
—— Plan of, 27
—— Tools used in, 29
—— Work for the Seasons, 28
O
Oak as Timber, 241
—— Evergreen for Seaside Planting, 79
—— for Economic Planting, 47
—— —— Exposed Planting, 71
—— —— Seaside Planting, 79
—— —— Roller Moth, 204
—— Seed, 13
_Olearia Hastii_, 105
_—— Macrodonta_, 105
Oriental Plane for Town Planting, 98
Ornamental Planting, 116
—— Weeping Trees, 121
_Osmanthus Ilicifolius_ for Town Planting, 105
P
Paper=Pulp, 251
Peat Soil, 129
Periwinkles for Carpeting in Shade, 191
_Phillyrea Vilmoriniana_ for Town Planting, 106
_Picia Sitchensis_, 59
Pine Beetle, 193
—— for Economic Planting, 59
—— —— Exposed Planting, 70
—— —— Ornamental Planting, 121
—— —— Seaside Planting, 81
—— Sawfly, 196
—— Shoot Moth, 195
—— Weevil, 194
_Pinus Insignis_, 82
_—— Montana_ for Seaside Planting, 81-85
_—— Macrocarpa_ Seed, 14
_—— Sabiniana_ Seed, 14
_—— Stropus_, 11
Pitch, 251
Pitting, 40
Plane for Town Planting, 99
—— Tree in Regent’s Park, 99
Plantations, Formation and Cost, 32
—— Hedges, 184
Planting, 41
—— Advantages of Tree, 293
—— Exposed Ground, 68
—— Financial Returns of, 290
—— Hedges, 184
—— Iron, 45
—— Ironstone Soils, 133
—— Notch, 44
—— Ornamental, 121
—— Osiers, 243
—— Tools used for, 43
_Polyporus Sulphureus_, 219
_—— Squamosus_, 216
Poplar as Timber, 241
—— for Economic Planting, 57
—— Town Planting, 101
_Populus Canadensis_ for Seaside Planting, 78
_—— Alba_ for Seaside Planting, 78
_—— Nigra_ for Seaside Planting, 78
Portugal Laurel for Seaside Planting, 84
Preface, vii
Preparation of Ground for Town Planting, 92
—— —— —— Hedges, 184
Prices of Contract Work, 277
—— of Timber per ton, 239
—— —— —— per cubic foot, 238
—— —— Forest Produce, 237
Prince Albert’s Fir for Ornamental Planting, 118
Privet for Game Coverts, 178
—— —— Hedge Planting, 188
Propagating Trees and Shrubs, 15
—— by Cuttings, 19
—— —— Grafting, 22
—— from Budding, 23
—— —— Layers, 21
—— —— Seed, 15
Prune, How and When to, 157
Pruning Bad Effects of, 152
—— Dead Wood, 155
—— Hedges, 152
—— Live Branches, 154
—— Shrubs, 157
—— Tools used in, 153
—— Trees, 151
Purple Willow for Ornamental Planting, 117
Pyrus for Ornamental Planting, 118
Q
Quick Hedges, 186
R
Red-Rot Fungus, 217
Red Spider, 201
_Retinospora_ for Town Planting, 109
_Rhamnus Frangula_ for Charcoal, 233
_Rhododendron Ponticum_ for Game Coverts, 180
_Rhytisma Punctata_, 216
_Rosa Rugosa_ for Hedge Planting, 188
_—— Rubiginosa_ for Hedge Planting, 188
Rowan Tree for Town Planting, 104
_Ruscus Aculeatus_ for Seaside Planting, 84
S
St. John’s Wort for Carpeting in Shade, 191
—— —— —— —— Game Coverts, 182
Scotch Elm for Exposed Planting, 70
—— —— —— Seaside Planting, 79
—— Fir as Timber, 242
—— —— for Hedge Planting, 113
—— Laburnum for Seaside Planting, 84
—— Pine for Economic Planting, 62
—— —— —— Exposed Planting, 70
—— —— —— Ornamental Planting, 118
—— —— —— Seaside Planting, 82
Sea Buckthorn for Seaside Planting, 82
Seaside Planting, 73
—— —— Hardwoods for, 76
—— —— Shrubs for, 82
—— —— List of Trees for, 85
Seed, Best Depth for Germinating, 17
—— Collecting and Harvesting, 8
—— of Various Trees contained in a Bushel, 10
—— Required to plant 100 sq. ft., 18
—— Tree, number in a lb., 10
Selecting Tree Seeds, 9
Shade-loving Shrubs, 191
Shrubs for Carpeting in Shade, 191
Shrubs for Hot and Dry Soils, 134
—— —— the Sea-Coast, 82-86
—— —— Town Planting, 105-107
Silver Fir as Timber, 242
—— —— for Economic Planting, 64
—— —— Seed, 13
Sitka Spruce for Economic Planting, 59
_Skimmia Japonica_ for Town Planting, 106
Slate Fences for Plantations, 258
Slit Planting, 44
Snowberry for Seaside Planting, 83
_Snowy Mespilus_ for Town Planting, 106
Soil for Home Nursery, 26
_Sophora Japonica_ for Town Planting, 104
Spanish Broom for Seaside Planting, 84
—— Chestnut as Timber, 51
—— —— for Economic Planting, 51
—— —— Seed, 12
—— Silver Fir for Ornamental Planting, 118
Spider, Red, 201
_Spirea Adiantifola_ for Seaside Planting, 83
Spring Work in Home Nursery, 28
Spruce Fir as Timber, 242
—— for Economic Planting, 59
—— —— Ornamental Planting, 118
—— Gall Aphis, 198
Spurge Laurel for Carpeting in Shade, 192
—— —— —— Town Planting, 106
Stag’s Horn Sumach for Town Planting, 106
Staking Trees, 119
Standing Timber Measuring, 270
Stone Walls for Fencing Plantations, 257
Strawberry Trees for Town Planting, 106
—— —— for Seaside, 84
Summer Work in Home Nursery, 30
Sweet-Bay for Seaside Planting, 84
—— Briar for Hedge Planting, 188
—— Chestnut for Economic Planting, 51
Sycamore as Timber, 242
—— for Economic Planting, 51
—— —— Exposed Planting, 70
—— —— Hedge Planting, 112
—— —— Seaside Planting, 76
—— —— Town Planting, 104
—— Fungus, 216
T
Tamarisk for Seaside Planting, 76-82
_Tamarix Gallica_ for Seaside Planting, 82
_—— Germanica_ for Seaside Planting, 82
Tansy-leaved Thorn for Town Planting, 105
Tar, 251
_Taxodium Distichum_ for Town Planting, 109
Thinning Plantations, 141
—— —— Rules for, 149
Thorn Fly, 202
—— for Hedge Planting, 186
Thorns for Ornamental Planting, 118
—— —— Seaside Planting, 83
—— —— Town Planting, 105
_Thujopsis Dolabrata_ for Town Planting, 109
Timber, British, and Some of Its Uses, 240
—— Measuring, 288
—— Prices, 237
Tools used in Forestry, 43
Town Planting, 87-109
—— —— Trees for, 98
Transplanting Seedlings, 18
—— Large Trees, 139
—— Machine, Faulkner’s, 140
—— Specimen Trees, 118
Tree Groundsel for Seaside Planting, 84
—— Guards, 265
—— Mallow for Seaside Planting, 83
Tree of Heaven for Town Planting, 101
—— Planting, Advantages of, 293
—— —— Financial Returns of, 290
—— Pruning in Economic Forestry, 151
—— Purslane for Seaside Planting, 83
Trees and Shrubs, Propagating, 15
—— best adapted for Various Soils, 128
—— for Chalky or Calcareous Soils, 130
—— —— Clay Soils, 132
—— —— Economic Planting, 47
—— —— Exposed Planting, 68
—— —— Gravelly and Sandy Soils, 131
—— —— Hedge Planting, 110
—— —— Hedgerow and Field, 110
—— —— Ironstone Soils, 133
—— —— —— and Coal Soils, 133
—— —— Ornamental Planting, 121
—— —— Peaty Soils 129
—— —— Seaside Planting, 85
—— —— Town Planting, 98
Trumpet Honeysuckle for Town Planting, 107
Tulip Tree for Town Plantations, 102
Turf Dykes for Plantations, 269
Turkey Oak for Seaside Planting, 79
Turpentine, 250
U
Umbrella Pine for Ornamental Planting, 118
Underwood, 170
Uses of Charcoal, 232
Utilizing Waste Forest Produce, 250
V
Value of Woods for Charcoal Making, 231
—— —— Reclaimed Peat Bog, 129
Venetian Sumach for Town Planting, 106
_Vinca Major_ for Seaside Planting, 84
—— _Minor_ for Seaside Planting, 84
Vine for Town Planting, 108
Virginia Creeper for Town Planting, 107
W
Walnut as Timber, 242
—— for Town Planting, 104
—— Seed, 13
Waste Forest Produce, Utilizing, 250
Water for Home Nursery, 26
Watering Trees, 97
Wayfaring Tree for Town Planting, 106
Weeping Ash for Town Planting, 104
—— Trees for Ornamental Planting, 121
Weymouth Pine for Economic Planting, 60
—— Pine Seeds, 11
When to Prune, 157
White Beam Tree for Town Planting, 102
—— Fruited Mulberry for Town Planting, 102
—— Rot Fungus, 218
Wild Cherry for Exposed Planting, 71
Willow Beetle, 197
—— Culture, 243
—— for Economic Planting, 54
—— —— Ornamental Planting, 117
—— —— Seaside Planting, 78
—— —— Timber, 242
—— —— Town Planting, 104
—— Kilmarnock, 121
—— Ringlet, 121
Willows for Basket-Making, 243
—— Profits of Culture, 248
—— Rules for Culture, 247
Winged Elm for the Seaside, 77
Winter Moth, 210
—— Work in Home Nursery, 30
Wire Fences for Plantations, 263
Wireworms, 208
Witch’s Broom or Willow, 210
Wood Fences for Plantations, 262
—— Leopard Moth, 203
Woods for Charcoal Making, 231
Y
Yew as Timber, 242
—— for Game Coverts, 181
—— —— Hedge Planting, 188
—— Seed, 13
Butler & Tanner Frome and LondonProject Gutenberg
Webster's practical forestry : $b A popular handbook on the rearing and growth of trees for profit or ornament
Webster, Angus D.
Chimera72
Expert