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A GUIDE TO THE EGYPTIAN COLLECTIONS IN THE BRITISH MUSEUM.
_BRITISH MUSEUM._
A GUIDE
TO THE
EGYPTIAN COLLECTIONS
IN THE
BRITISH MUSEUM.
_WITH 53 PLATES AND 180 ILLUSTRATIONS IN THE TEXT._
PRINTED BY ORDER OF THE TRUSTEES.
1909.
PRICE HALF-A-CROWN.
[_All Rights Reserved._]
HARRISON AND SONS, LTD.,
PRINTERS IN ORDINARY TO HIS MAJESTY,
ST. MARTIN’S LANE, LONDON, W.C. 2.
PRINTED IN ENGLAND.
PREFACE.
The Collection of Egyptian Antiquities in the British Museum comprises
nearly fifty thousand objects, and many of its sections are unrivalled
in completeness. It illustrates, in a more or less comprehensive manner,
the history and civilization of the Egyptians from the time when their
country was passing out of the Predynastic Period under a settled form
of government, about B.C. 4500, to the time of the downfall of the power
of the Queens Candace at Meroë, in the Egyptian Sûdân, in the second or
third century after Christ. The monuments of Christian Egypt also form a
very important series, and illustrate Coptic funerary sculpture and art
between the sixth and eleventh centuries A.D.
The present Guide has been prepared with the view of providing the
visitor to the British Museum with information of a more general
character than can be conveniently given in the Guides to the several
Galleries and Rooms of the Department. An attempt has here been made to
present a sketch of the origin, the manners and customs, the language,
the writing, the literature, the religion, and the burial rites of
the peoples of Egypt, and of their history under the successive
dynasties; embodying references to the several objects of the Collection
which illustrate the different branches of the subject. The text is
supplemented by an abundant selection of cuts and plates of the most
important of the antiquities.
E. A. WALLIS BUDGE.
DEPARTMENT OF EGYPTIAN AND ASSYRIAN ANTIQUITIES, BRITISH MUSEUM,
_September 29, 1908_.
CONTENTS.
PAGE
PREFACE v
LIST OF PLATES ix
LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS IN THE TEXT xi
CHAPTER I.—THE COUNTRY OF EGYPT 1
” II.—ETHNOGRAPHY. LANGUAGE. FORMS OF WRITING. DECIPHERMENT
OF EGYPTIAN HIEROGLYPHICS, ALPHABET, AND WRITING.
NATIONAL CHARACTER 20
” III.—EGYPTIAN LITERATURE, SACRED AND PROFANE 58
” IV.—MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. MARRIAGE. EDUCATION. DRESS.
FOOD. AMUSEMENTS. CATTLE BREEDING. TRADE.
HANDICRAFTS 76
” V.—ARCHITECTURE. PAINTING. SCULPTURE 103
” VI.—THE KING AND HIS SUBJECTS. MILITARY SERVICE 116
” VII.—EGYPTIAN RELIGION 122
” VIII.—EMBALMING. THE EGYPTIAN TOMB 158
” IX.—NUMBERS. DIVISIONS OF TIME. CHRONOLOGY 180
” X.—HISTORY OF EGYPT. ANCIENT EMPIRE 188
” XI.—HISTORY OF EGYPT. MIDDLE EMPIRE 213
” XII.—HISTORY OF EGYPT. NEW EMPIRE 228
” XIII.—HISTORY OF EGYPT. PTOLEMAÏC PERIOD 268
HISTORY OF EGYPT. ROMAN PERIOD 275
HISTORY OF EGYPT. ARAB PERIOD 282
A LIST OF THE PRINCIPAL KINGS OF EGYPT 286
CARTOUCHES OF THE PRINCIPAL KINGS OF EGYPT 290
INDEX 303
LIST OF PLATES.
SEE PAGE
PLATE I. Vignette from the papyrus of Queen Netchemet 61
” II. Text and vignettes from the sarcophagus of King
Nekht-Ḥeru-ḥebt 66
” III. False door from the tomb of Sheshȧ 68
” IV. Sepulchral tablet of Thethȧ 68
” V. Sepulchral tablet of Sebek-ḥetep 68
” VI. Sepulchral tablet of Pai-neḥsi 68
” VII. Sepulchral tablet of Bak-en-Ȧmen 68
” VIII. Sepulchral tablet of Nes-Ḥeru 68
” IX. Painted relief from the tomb of Ur-ȧri-en-Ptaḥ 81
” X. Painted sepulchral tablet of Kaḥu 81
” XI. Columns in the temple of Seti I 107
” XII. Head of a priestess 115
” XIII. Seated figures of Khā-em-Uast and his wife 115
” XIV. False door from the tomb of Ȧsȧ-ānkh 167
” XV. View of a painted chamber in the tomb of Nekht 175
” XVI. Wall painting from a tomb 175
” XVII. General view of the sarcophagus of Nekht-Ḥeru-ḥebt 177
” XVIII. General view of the sarcophagus of Nes-Qeṭiu 177
” XIX. Sepulchral tablet of Ban-āa 177
” XX. The Great Pyramid and Sphinx 196
” XXI. The “Shêkh al-Balad” 203
” XXII. Tablet of Ȧntef 210
” XXIII. Tablet of Sebek-āa 211
” XXIV. Tablet and figure of Sa-Hathor 215
” XXV. Statue of Usertsen III 217
” XXVI. Head of Ȧmen-em-ḥāt III 218
” XXVII. Statue of Sekhem-uatch-taui-Rā 223
” XXVIII. Stele of the reign of Sekhem-ka-Rā 223
” XXIX. Memorial cone of Sebek-ḥetep 223
” XXX. The Hall of Columns at Karnak 231
” XXXI. Head of a colossal statue of Thothmes III 231
” XXXII. Statue of Ȧmen-ḥetep III 234
” XXXIII. The Colossi of Ȧmen-ḥetep III 234
” XXXIV. Letter of Ȧmen-ḥetep III 236
” XXXV. Letter of Tushratta, king of Mitani, to Ȧmen-ḥetep III 236
” XXXVI. Lion of Tut-ānkh-Ȧmen 238
” XXXVII. Statues of a priest and his wife 239
” XXXVIII. The temple of Abû Simbel 242
” XXXIX. Head of a colossal statue of Rameses II 245
” XL. Sepulchral stele of Qaḥa 248
” XLI. Vignettes from the papyrus of Queen Netchemet 252
” XLII. Hathor-headed capital 254
” XLIII. Relief of Queen Ānkhnes-neferȧb-Rā 261
” XLIV. The goddess Nut 261
” XLV. Statue of Uaḥ-ȧb-Rā 261
” XLVI. Obelisk dedicated to Thoth, Twice-great 265
” XLVII. Vignettes and text from the sarcophagus of
Nekht-Ḥeru-ḥebt 265
” XLVIII. Relief of Ptolemy II 269
” XLIX. The temple of Edfû 270
” L. Granite shrine from Philae 271
” LI. Tablet of Tiberius 277
” LII. Tablet of Tiberius 277
” LIII. Tablet of Apa Paḥomo 283
LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS IN THE TEXT.
PAGE
Map of Egypt 2, 3
The Delta of Egypt 5
The Entrance to the Valley of the Tombs of the Kings at Thebes 6
The Nile-gods and their cavern 8
The Nile-god in his cavern 8
The Nile-god bearing offerings 9
The Nile-gods of the South and North 9
The Nile from sea to source 11
Statue of Ḥāpi the Nile-god 12
Egyptian hunters of the Archaïc Period, Nos. 1-6 23
Ivory figure of a king 24
Bone figure of a dwarf 24
Bone figure of a woman carrying a child 25
Bone figure of a woman with inlaid eyes 25
Figure of Betchmes 26
Figure of Nefer-hi 26
Fox playing the double pipes 27
Mouse seated on a chair 28
Cat herding geese 29
Lion and unicorn playing draughts 30
The spearing of Āpep 31
A page of writing from the Great Harris Papyrus 36
Demotic writing 38
Coptic inscription 41
The Rosetta Stone 42, 43
Two wooden writing palettes 54
Slab of limestone inscribed in hieratic 56
Vignette and text from the papyrus of Ani 60
Vignette and text from the papyrus of Nu 60
Vignette and text from the papyrus of Ḥeru-em-ḥeb 61
Text from the Book “May my name flourish” 63
The ceremony of “Opening the mouth” 64
Marble sun-dial 72
Head of a priestess 80
Relief, with a hippopotamus 84
Green schist bear 86
Egyptian house 88
Egyptian hut 90
Ivory head-rest 91
The Bull Apis 93
The Bull Mnevis 94
Flint cow’s head 95
Jewellers drilling and polishing beads 99
Pylon and court of the temple of Edfû 104
Gateway to the temple of Rameses III 105
Gateway of Ptolemy IX at Karnak 106
Granite obelisks at Karnak 107
Pillars at Philae 108
Statue of Ȧn-kheft-ka 109
Figure of a priest 110
Head of a statue of Neb-ḥap-Rā 110
Statue of Sebek-nekht 111
Figure of a king 112
Queen Tetȧ-Kharṭ 113
Head of Ȧmen-ḥetep III 114
Statue of Isis 115
Figure of Qen-nefer 118
Statues of Māḥu and Sebta 119
The principal gods and goddesses of Egypt (57 figures) 123-126
Khnemu fashioning a man on a potter’s wheel 135
Osiris rising from the sarcophagus 138
Osiris in his shrine 140
Thoth weighing the heart 140
Maāt weighing the heart 140
Osiris on his Judgment Throne 141
Rā at sunrise 143
Rā at sunset 143
Flint amulets (4 figures) 148
The step pyramid at Ṣaḳḳârah 166
A group of maṣṭaba tombs 167
Tablet for offerings 168
An Egyptian tomb 168
The soul visiting the body 168
Section of the Second Pyramid 171
Entrance to the tomb of Khnemu-ḥetep 172
Entrance to a royal tomb 173
Plan and section of the tomb of Seti I (2 cuts) 174
Wall painting from a tomb 175
Coffin of Ḥes-Peṭān-Ȧst 176
Figures of Ka-ṭep and Ḥetep-ḥeres 177
King Semti dancing before a god 190
Relief from the tomb of Sherȧ 192
Relief from the tomb of Suten-ȧbu 194
King Khufu 196
Section of the Great Pyramid 197
King Khāf-Rā 199
King Menkau-Rā 200
Section of the Third Pyramid 202
King Usr-en-Rā Ȧn 204
Shrine of Pa-suten-sa 219
Stele of Tatiankef 220
Lion of Khian 225
Statue of Ȧmen-ḥetep I 229
The Temple of Luxor 233
Scarabs of Ȧmen-ḥetep III (2 cuts) 235
Kneeling statue of Rameses II 241
Façade of the Ramesseum 243
Statues of Rameses II (2 cuts) 244
Statue of Khā-em-Uast 246
Statue of Seti II 247
Statue of Ānkh-renp-nefer 254
Head of Psammetichus II 259
Stele of Ptolemy II 269
Head of a statue of a Ptolemy 271
Limestone window 273
“Pharaoh’s Bed” 276
Coptic sepulchral tablet 279
Tablet of Plêïnôs 281
Tablet of David 281
Tablet of Abraam 284
Tablet of Rachel 284
INTRODUCTION TO THE EGYPTIAN COLLECTIONS IN THE BRITISH MUSEUM.
CHAPTER I.
THE COUNTRY OF EGYPT AND ITS LIMITS. THE DELTA. OASES. LAKES. THE NILE.
INUNDATION. NILE FESTIVALS. FAMINES. ANCIENT AND MODERN DIVISIONS OF
EGYPT AND THE SÛDÂN.
The =Land of Egypt= is situated in the north-east shoulder of the
continent of Africa, and in the earliest times it consisted of that
portion of the Nile Valley which lay between the Mediterranean Sea
and the northern end of the First Cataract; the Island of Ābu, or
Elephantine, and the town of Sunnu, or Sunt, the Syene of classical
writers and the Sewênêh of the Bible (Ezekiel xxix, 10), forming the
southern boundary of the country. The northern limit of Egypt has, in
historic times, always been the Mediterranean Sea, but its southern
limit varied considerably at different periods. Under the Vth dynasty,
about B.C. 3600, it was marked by Elephantine and Syene. Under the XIIth
dynasty, about B.C. 2500, it was extended to Semnah and Kummah, about
250 miles to the south of Syene. Under the XVIIIth dynasty, about B.C.
1600, the southern frontier town was probably Napata, the modern Merawi,
about 600 miles, by river, from Syene. A century later the Egyptians took
possession of the Island of Meroë, and they appear to have built a town
at a place about 930 miles from Syene, by river, to mark their southern
frontier. Between B.C. 1200 and 600 the frontier was withdrawn to Syene,
where it remained practically for several centuries. Under the Arabs,
the southern frontier was fixed at Dongola (A.D. 1275), the old Nubian
capital, which lay about 570 miles from Syene. In 1873, Sir Samuel Baker
extended it to Gondókoro, about 2,823 miles, by river, from Cairo. In
1895, the frontier town of Egypt in the south was Wâdî Ḥalfah, and it
continued to be so until the capture of Umm Darmân (Omdurmân) in 1898.
At the present time, the southern limit of Egypt is marked by the 22nd
parallel of N. latitude, which crosses the Nile at Gebel Sahaba, about
eight miles north of the Camp at Wâdî Ḥalfah, and its northern limit is
the northernmost point of the Delta. The distance, by river, from the
Camp to the Mediterranean Sea, is about 960 miles. The boundary of Egypt
on the east is marked by a line drawn from Ar-Rafah, which lies a little
to the east of Al-Arîsh, the Rhinocolura of classical writers, to Tabah,
at the head of the Gulf of Akabah, by the eastern coast of the Peninsula
of Sinai,[1] and by the Red Sea. On the west, the boundary is marked by
a line drawn from the Gulf of Solum due south to a point a little to the
south-west of the Oasis of Sîwah, and then proceeding in a south-easterly
direction to the 22nd parallel of N. latitude, near Wâdî Ḥalfah.
[Illustration: MAP OF EGYPT.]
The =name “Egypt,”= which has come to us through the Latin “Aegyptus” and
the Greek “Aiguptos,” is derived from one of the ancient Egyptian names
of Memphis, viz., “Ḥet-ka-Ptaḥ,” meaning “Temple of the Ka, or Double,
of Ptaḥ” 𓉗𓏏𓉐𓂓𓏤𓊪𓏏𓎛𓀭 or 𓉘𓂓𓏤𓊪𓏏𓎛𓀭𓉜. The common name for Egypt among
the Egyptians was “Qem,” or “Qemt,” _i.e._, the “Black Land,” 𓆎𓏏𓊖, in
allusion to the brownish-black mud of which the soil chiefly consists.
Another name of frequent occurrence in the literature is “Ta-Merȧ,” the
“Land of the Inundation,” 𓇾𓏤𓈇𓌻𓇋𓆳𓊖.
The =soil= of Egypt is formed of a layer of sedimentary deposits, which
has been laid down by the Nile, and varies in depth from about 40 to 110
feet; the rate at which this layer is being added to at the present time
in the bed of the river is said to be about =four inches in a century=.
In prehistoric times the sea ran up as far as Esna, and deposited thick
layers of sand and gravel; upon these the rivers and streams flowing from
the south spread the mud and stony matter which they brought down with
them, and thus the soil of Egypt was gradually built up. Near Esna begins
the layer of sandstone, which extends southward, and covers nearly the
whole of Nubia, and rests ultimately on crystalline rock.
[Illustration: The Delta of Egypt.]
The part of Egypt which lies to the north of the point where the Nile
divides itself into two branches resembles in shape a lotus flower, or
a triangle standing on its apex, and because of its similarity to the
fourth letter of their alphabet, the Greeks called it =Delta=, Δ.
The Delta is formed of a deep layer of mud and sand, which rests upon the
yellow quartz sands, and gravels and stiff clay, which were laid down
by the sea in prehistoric times. The area of the Delta is about 14,500
square miles.
The =Oases= of Egypt are seven in number, and all are situated in the
Western Desert. Their names are: 1. Oasis of =Sîwah= or =Jupiter Ammon=;
2. Oasis of =Baḥarîyah=, _i.e._, the Northern Oasis; 3. The Oasis of
=Farâfrah=, the Ta-ȧḥet of the Egyptians; 4. The Oasis of =Dâkhlah=,
_i.e._, the “Inner” Oasis, the =Tchesti= of the Egyptians; 5. The Oasis
of =Khârgah=, _i.e._, the “Outer Oasis,” the Uaḥt-rest or “Southern
Oasis” of the Egyptians; 6. The Oasis of =Dailah=, to the west of
Farâfrah; 7. The Oasis of =Kûrkûr=, to the west of Aswân.
The principal =Lakes= of Egypt are: 1. =Birkat al-Ḳurûn=, a long, narrow
lake lying to the north-west of the Province of the Fayyûm, and formerly
believed to be a part of the Lake Moeris described by Herodotus; 2.
The =Natron Lakes=, which lie in the Natron Valley, to the north-west
of Cairo; from these the Egyptians obtained salt and various forms of
soda, which were used for making incense, and in embalming the dead; 3.
Lake =Menzâlah=, Lake =Bûrlûs=, Lake =Edkû=, Lake =Abukîr=, now almost
reclaimed, and Lake =Mareotis=; all these are in the Delta. Lake =Timsaḥ=
(_i.e._, Crocodile Lake) and the Bitter Lakes, which were originally mere
swamps, came into existence with the making of the Suez Canal.
The =Fayyûm= which was in ancient times regarded as one of the Oases,
is nothing more than a deep depression scooped out of the limestone,
on which are layers of loams and marls covered over by Nile mud. The
district was called by the Egyptians “Ta-she,” or “Land of the Lake”; at
the present time it has an area of about 850 square miles, and is watered
by a branch of the Nile called the “Baḥr Yûsuf,” which flows into it
through an opening in the mountains on the west bank of the Nile. The
Baḥr Yûsuf, or “River of Joseph,” is not called after the name of the
patriarch Joseph, but that of some Muḥammadan ruler. It is not a canal
as was once supposed, but an arm of the Nile, which, however, needs
clearing out periodically. In the Fayyûm lay the large body of water to
which Herodotus gave the name of =Lake Moeris=. He believed that this
Lake had been constructed artificially, but modern irrigation authorities
in Egypt have come to the conclusion that the mass of water which he
saw and thought was a lake was merely the result of the Nile flood, or
inundation, and that there never was a Lake Moeris.
[Illustration: The Entrance to the Valley of the Tombs of the Kings at
Thebes.]
=Deserts.= On each side of the Valley of the Nile lies a vast desert.
That on the east is called the Arabian Desert, or Red Sea Desert,
and that on the west the Libyan Desert. The influence of the latter
on the climate of Egypt is very great, as for six months of the year
the prevailing wind blows from the west. At many places in the Eastern
and Western Deserts there are long stretches of sand scores of miles
in length, and immense tracts covered with layers of loose pebbles and
stone, and the general effect is desolate in the extreme. The hills which
skirt the deserts along the Valley of the Nile are usually quite low, but
at certain points they rise to the height of a few hundred feet. Nothing
grows on them, and more bare and inhospitable places cannot be imagined.
The accompanying illustration gives a good idea of the general appearance
of the stone hills on the Nile. In the fore-ground are masses of broken
stone, sand, rocks, etc., and these stretch back to a gap in the range of
hills just below the letter A, whence, between steep rocks, a rough road
winds in and out along the dreary valley which contains the sepulchres
of the great kings of the XVIIIth, XIXth and later dynasties. Under the
light of a full moon the Valley is full of weird beauty, but in the
day-time the heat in it resembles that of a furnace.
The chief characteristic of Egypt is the great =river Nile=, which has in
all ages been the source of the life and prosperity of its inhabitants,
and the principal highway of the country. The Egyptians of the early
Dynastic Period had no exact knowledge about the true source of the
river. In their hymns to the Nile-god they described him as the “hidden
one,” and “unseen,” and his “secret places” are said to be “unknown.” The
river over which he presided formed a part of the great celestial river,
or ocean, upon which sailed the boats of the Sun-god daily. This river
surrounded the whole earth, from which, however, it was separated by a
range of mountains. On one portion of this river was placed the throne
of Osiris, according to a legend, and close by was the opening in the
range of mountains through which an arm of the celestial river flowed
into the earth. The place where the Nile appeared on earth was believed
to be situated in the First Cataract, and in late times the Nile was
said to rise there, between two mountains which were near the Island of
Elephantine and the Island of Philae. Herodotus gives the names of these
mountains as “Krôphi” and “Môphi,” and their originals have probably been
found in the old Egyptian “Qer-Ḥāpi” and “Mu-Ḥāpi”; these names mean
“Cavern of Ḥāpi” and “Water of Ḥāpi” respectively.
[Illustration: The two Nile-gods and their Cavern, and the hippopotamus
goddess, who is armed with a huge knife, their protectress.]
[Illustration: The Nile-god in his cavern, under the rocks at Philae,
pouring out the waters which formed the two Niles.]
The underground caverns, or “storehouses of the Nile,” from which the
river welled up, are depicted in the illustrations here given. In the
first the cavern is guarded by a hippopotamus-headed goddess, who is
armed with a large knife and wears a feather on her head. Above are
seated two gods, one wearing a cluster of papyrus plants on his head,
and the other a cluster of lotus flowers; the former represents the
Nile of the South, and the other the Nile of the North. Each god holds
water-plants in one hand. In the second illustration the god is depicted
kneeling in his cavern, which is enclosed by the body of a serpent; he
wears a cluster of water-plants on his head, and is pouring out from two
vases the streams of water which became the South and North Niles.
The Egyptians called both their river and the river-god “=Ḥāp=” or
“=Ḥāpi=” 𓎛𓂝𓊪, 𓎛𓂝𓊪𓏭𓈘𓈗𓀭, a name of which the meaning is unknown; in
very early dynastic times the god was called “Ḥep-ur” 𓎛𓊪𓈘𓅨, _i.e._, the
“great Ḥep.” The name “Nile,” by which the “River of Egypt” is generally
known, is not of Egyptian origin, but is probably derived from the
Semitic word _nakhal_ “river”; this the Greeks turned into “Neilos,” and
the Latins into “Nilus,” whence comes the common form “Nile.” The river
appears in the form of a man wearing a cluster of water-plants on his
head, and his fertility is indicated by a large pendent breast. In the
accompanying illustration the gods of the South and North Niles are seen
tying stems of the lotus and papyrus plants round the symbol of “union”;
the scene represents the union of Upper and Lower Egypt.
[Illustration: The Nile-god bearing offerings of bread, wine, fruit,
flowers, etc.]
[Illustration: The Nile-gods of the South and North tying the stems of
a lily and a papyrus plant round the symbol of “union,” symbolizing the
union of Upper and Lower Egypt.]
The ideas held by the Egyptians concerning the power of the Nile-god are
well illustrated by a lengthy Hymn to the Nile preserved on papyrus in
the British Museum (Sallier II, No. 10,182). “Homage to thee, O Ḥāpi,
thou appearest in this land, and thou comest in peace to make Egypt
to live. Thou waterest the fields which Rā hath created, thou givest
life unto all animals, and as thou descendest on thy way from heaven
thou makest the land to drink without ceasing. Thou art the friend of
bread and drink, thou givest strength to the grain and makest it to
increase, and thou fillest every place of work with work.... Thou art
the lord of fish ... thou art the creator of barley, and thou makest the
temples to endure for millions of years.... Thou art the lord of the
poor and needy. If thou wert overthrown in the heavens, the gods would
fall upon their faces, and men would perish. When thou appearest upon
the earth, shouts of joy rise up and all people are glad; every man of
might receiveth food, and every tooth is provided with meat.... Thou
fillest the storehouses, thou makest the granaries to overflow and thou
hast regard to the condition of the poor and needy. Thou makest herbs
and grain to grow that the desires of all may be satisfied, and thou art
not impoverished thereby. Thou makest thy strength to be a shield for
man.” Elsewhere he is called the “father of the gods of the company of
the gods who dwell in the celestial ocean,” and he was declared to be
self-begotten, and “One,” and in nature inscrutable.
In another passage of the same hymn it is said that the god is not
sculptured in stone, that images of him are not seen, “he is not to
be seen in inscribed shrines, there is no habitation large enough to
contain him, and thou canst not make images of him in thy heart.” These
statements suggest that statues or figures of the Nile-god were not
commonly made, and it is a fact that figures of the god, large or small,
are rare. In the fine collection of figures of Egyptian gods exhibited
in the Third Egyptian Room, which is certainly one of the largest in
the world, there is only one figure of Ḥāpi (No. 108, Wall-case 125).
In this the god wears on his head a cluster of papyrus plants 𓇇, before
which is the Utchat, or Eye of Horus, 𓂀, and he holds an altar from which
he pours out water. The only other figure of the god in the British
Museum collection is the fine quartzite sandstone statue (Southern
Egyptian Gallery, No. 766) which was dedicated to Ȧmen-Rā by Shashanq,
the son of Uasarken and his queen Maāt-ka-Rā. Here the god bears on his
out-stretched hands an altar, from which hang down bunches of grain,
green herbs, flowers, waterfowl, etc. The statue was dedicated to
Ȧmen-Rā, who included the attributes of Ḥāp among his own.
[Illustration: The NILE from SEA to SOURCE]
The true =source of the Nile= is Victoria Nyanza, or =Lake Victoria=,
which lies between the parallels of latitude 0° 20′ N. and 3° S., and
the meridians of 31° 40′ and 35° E. of Greenwich; the lake is 250
miles in length and 200 in breadth, and was discovered in modern times
by Speke, on August 3rd, 1858. Other contributory sources are Albert
Nyanza, or =Lake Albert=, discovered by Sir Samuel Baker on March 16th,
1864, and =Lake Albert Edward=, discovered by Sir H. M. Stanley in 1875;
the connecting channel between these lakes is the Semliki River. The
portion of the Nile between Lake Victoria and Lake Albert is called the
“=Victoria Nile=” (or the “Somerset River”); that between Lake Albert
and Lake Nô is called the “Baḥr al-Gebel” or “=Upper Nile=”; and that
between Lake Nô and Kharṭûm is called “Baḥr al-Abyaḍ,” or “=White Nile=.”
The total length of these three portions of the Nile is about 1,560
miles. At Kharṭûm the White Nile is joined by the “=Blue Nile=” (or
Abâî, the Astapos of Strabo, which rises in Lake Ṣânâ and is about 1,000
miles long), and their united streams form that portion of the river
which is commonly known as the “Nile.” The distance from Kharṭûm to the
Mediterranean Sea is about 1,913 miles, and thus the =total length of
the Niles= is about =3,473 miles=. Between Kharṭûm and the sea the Nile
receives but one tributary, viz., the =Atbara=, the Astaboras of Strabo,
a torrential stream which brings into the Nile an immense quantity of
dirty red water containing valuable deposits of mud. The =Cataracts=, or
series of rapids, on the Nile are six in number: the =first= is between
Aswân and Philae, the =second= is a little to the south of Wâdî Ḥalfah,
the =third= is at Ḥannek, the =fourth= is at Adramîya, the =fifth= is at
Wâdî al-Ḥamâr, and the =sixth= is at Shablûkah. On the White Nile is a
series of cataracts known as the “Fôla Falls,” and on the Blue Nile there
are cataracts from Rusêres southwards for a distance of 40 miles.
[Illustration: Statue of Ḥāpi the Nile-god.
[No. 766.]]
The most important characteristic of the Nile is its annual flooding or
=Inundation=. By the end of May, in Egypt, the river is at its lowest
level. During the month of June the Nile, between Cairo and Aswân, begins
to rise, and a quantity of “green water” appears at this time. The cause
of the colour is said to be myriads of minute algae, which subsequently
putrefy and disappear. During August the river rises rapidly, and its
waters assume a red, muddy colour, which is due to the presence of the
rich red earth which is brought into the Nile by the Blue Nile and the
Atbara. The rising of the waters continues until the middle of September,
when they remain stationary for about a fortnight or three weeks. In
October a further slight rise occurs, and then they begin to fall; the
fall continues gradually until, in the May following, they are at their
lowest level once more. The cause of the Inundation is, as Aristotle (who
lived in the fourth century B.C.) first showed, the spring and early
summer rains in the mountains of Ethiopia and the Southern Sûdân; these
are brought down in torrents by the great tributaries of the Nile, viz.,
the Gazelle River, the Sobat (the Astasobas of Strabo), the Giraffe
River, the Blue Nile, and the Atbara. The Sobat rises about April 15, the
Gazelle River and the Giraffe River about the 15th of May, the Blue Nile
at the end of May, and the Atbara a little later. The united waters of
these tributaries, with the water of the Upper Nile, reach Egypt about
the end of August, and cause the Inundation to reach its highest level.
The Nile rises from 21 feet to 28 feet, and deposits a thin layer of
fertilizing mud over every part of the country reached by its waters.
Formerly, when the rise was about 26 feet, there was sufficient water to
cover the whole country; when it was less, scarcity prevailed; and when
it was more, ruin and misery appeared through over-flooding. In recent
years, the British irrigation engineers in Egypt have regulated, by means
of the Aswân Dam, the Barrage at Asyûṭ, and the Barrage near Al-Manâshî,
a little to the north of Cairo,[2] the supply of water during the winter,
or dry season, with such success, that, in spite of “low” Niles, the
principal crops have been saved, and the people protected from want.
In connection with the adoration of the Nile, two important =festivals=
were observed. The first of these took place in June and was called
the “Night of the Tear,” 𓈖𓇉𓄿𓏏𓏲𓏭𓇌𓁻, _Qerḥ en Ḥatui_, because it was
believed that at this time of the year the goddess Isis shed tears in
commemoration of her first great lamentation over the dead body of her
husband Osiris. Her tears fell into the river, and as they fell they
multiplied and filled the river, and in this way caused the Inundation.
This belief exists in Egypt, in a modified form, at the present time,
and, up to the middle of last century the Muḥammadans celebrated, with
great solemnity, a festival on the 11th day of Paoni (June 17th), which
was called the “Night of the Drop,” _Lêlat al-Nuḳtah_. On the night of
this day a miraculous drop of water was supposed to fall into the Nile
and cause it to rise. The second ancient Nile-festival was observed about
the middle of August, and has its equivalent in the modern Muḥammadan
festival of the “Cutting of the Dam.” A dam of earth about 23 feet high
was built in the Khalîg Canal, and when the level of the Nile nearly
reached this height, a party of workmen thinned the upper portion of the
dam at sunrise on the day following the “completion of the Nile,” and
immediately afterwards a boat was rowed against it, and, breaking the
dam, passed through it with the current.
The history of Egypt shows that in all periods the country has suffered
from severe =famines=, which have been caused by successions of “low”
Niles. Thus a terrible seven years’ famine began in A.D. 1066, and lasted
till 1072. Dogs, cats, horses, mules, vermin fetched extravagant prices,
and the people of Cairo killed and ate each other, and human flesh was
sold in the public markets. In Genesis xli, we have another example
of a seven years’ famine, and still an older one is mentioned in an
inscription cut upon a rock on the Island of Sâḥal in the First Cataract.
According to the text, this famine took place in the reign of Tcheser,
a king of the IIIrd dynasty, about B.C. 4000, because there had been no
satisfactory inundation of the Nile for seven years. The king says that
by reason of this, grain was very scarce, vegetables and garden produce
of every description could not be obtained, the people had nothing to
eat, and men were everywhere robbing their neighbours. Children wailed
for food, young men had no strength to move, strong men collapsed for
want of sustenance, and the aged lay in despair on the ground waiting
for death. The king wrote to Matar, the Governor of the First Cataract,
where the Nile was believed to rise, and asked him to enquire of Khnemu,
the god of the Cataract, why such calamities were allowed to fall on the
country. Subsequently the king visited Elephantine, and was received by
Khnemu, the god of the Cataract, who told him that the Nile had failed to
rise because the worship of the gods of the Cataract had been neglected.
The king promised to dedicate offerings regularly to their temples in
future, and, having kept his promise, the Nile rose and covered the land,
and filled the country with prosperity.
=Egyptian Geography.=—From time immemorial Egypt has been divided into
two parts, viz., the =Land of the South=, _Ta-Resu_, 𓇾𓏤𓈇𓇖𓊖, and the
=Land of the North=, _Ta-Meḥt_, 𓇾𓏤𓈇𓇉𓏏𓊖. The Land of the South is Upper
Egypt, and its northern limit in modern times is Cairo; the Land of the
North is Lower Egypt, _i.e._, the Delta, and its southern limit is Cairo.
The ancient Egyptians divided the Land of the South into twenty-two
parts, and the Land of the North into twenty parts; each such part was
called _Ḥesp_ 𓎛𓊃𓊪𓈈, a word which the Greeks rendered by =nome=. Each
nome was to all intents and purposes a little complete kingdom. It was
governed by a _ḥeq_, 𓋾𓈎, or chief man, and it contained a capital town
in which was the seat of the god of the nome and the priesthood, and
every _ḥeq_ administered his _ḥesp_ as he pleased. The number of the
nomes given by Greek and Roman writers varies between thirty-six and
forty-four. In late times Egypt was divided into three parts, Upper,
Central, and Lower Egypt; Central Egypt consisted of seven nomes, and was
therefore called Heptanomis. The nomes were:
UPPER EGYPT.
Nome. Capital. God or Goddess.
1. =Ta-Kens.= =Ābu.=[3] ELEPHANTINE. Khnemu.
_Aswân._
2. =Tes-Ḥeru.= =Ṭeb.= APOLLINOPOLIS MAGNA. Ḥeru-Beḥuṭet.
_Edfû._
3. =Ten.= =Nekheb.= EILEITHYIASPOLIS. Nekhebit.
_Al-Kâb._
4. =Uast.= =Uast.= THEBES (or HERMONTHIS). Ȧmen-Rā.
_Luxor_, _Karnak_.
5. =Ḥerui.= =Ḳebti.= COPTOS. Ȧmsu, or Menu.
_Ḳuft._
6. =Ȧati.= =Taenterert.= TENTYRIS. Hathor.
_Denderah._
7. =Seshesh.= =Ḥa.= DIOSPOLIS PARVA. Hathor.
_Ḥau._
8. =Ȧbt.= =Teni.= THIS. Ȧn-Ḥer.
9. =...= =Ȧpu.= PANOPOLIS. Ȧmsu or Menu.
_Ahkmîm._
10. =Uatchet.= =Ṭebu.= APHRODITOPOLIS. Hathor.
11. =Set.= =Shas-ḥetep.= HYPSELIS. Khnemu.
_Shutb._
12. =Ṭu-...= =Nut-ent-bȧk.= HIERAKONPOLIS. Horus.
13. =Ȧm-f-khent.= =Saut.= LYKOPOLIS. Ȧp-uat.
_Asyûṭ._
14. =Ȧm-f-peḥ.= =Kesi.= KUSAE. Hathor.
_Al-Kusîyah._
15. =Unt.= =Khemennu.= HERMOPOLIS. Thoth.
_Ashmnûnên._
16. =Maḥetch.= =Ḥebennu.= Horus.
17. =Ȧnpu(?).= =Kasa.= KYNONPOLIS. Anubis.
_Al-Kês._
18. =Sepṭ.= =Ḥet-suten.= AL-HÎBAH. Anubis.
19. =Bu-tchamui.= =Pa-Mātchet.= OXYRRHYNCHUS. Set.
_Bahnassâ._
20. =Ȧm-Khent.= =Suten-ḥenen.= HERAKLEOPOLIS Ḥeru-shefit.
MAGNA. _Ahnâs._
(The Hânês of the Bible.)
21. =Ȧm-peḥ.= =Smen-Ḥeru.= Khnemu.
22. =Maten.= =Ṭep-Ȧḥet.= APHRODITOPOLIS. Hathor.
_Atfîḥ._
LOWER EGYPT.
Nome. Capital. God or Goddess.
1. =Ȧneb-ḥetch.= =Men-nefert.= MEMPHIS. Ptaḥ.
_Mît-Rahînah._
2. =Ȧa.= =Sekhem.= LETOPOLIS. Ḥeru-ur.
3. =Ȧment.= =Pa-neb-Ȧmt.= APIS. Hathor.
4. =Sȧpi-Rest.= =Tchekā.= Ȧmen-Rā.
5. =Sȧpi-Meḥt.= =Saut.= SAÏS. Neith.
_Ṣâ._
6. =Ka-semt.= =Khasut.= XOÏS. Ȧmen-Rā.
7. =Nefer-Ȧment.= =Pa-Aḥu-neb-Ȧment.= Ḥu.
_Metelis (?)._
8. =Nefer-Ȧbt.= =Thekaut= (=Succoth=), Atem, or Temu.
=Pa-Tem= (=Pithom=).
PATUMOS.
_Tall al-Maskhûṭah._
9. =Ȧthi(?).= =Pa-Ȧsȧr.= BUSIRIS. Osiris.
_Abû-Ṣîr._
10. =Ka-Qam.= =Ḥet-ta-ḥer-ȧbt.= ATHRIBIS. Ḥeru-Khenti-Khati.
11. =Ka-ḥeseb.= =Ḥesbet(?)=, =Ka-Ḥebset(?).= Isis, or Sebek.
KABASOS.
12. =Theb-...= =Theb-neter(?).= SEBENNYTOS. Ȧn-Ḥer.
_Sammanûd._
13. =Ḥeq-āṭ.= =Ȧnnu= (The On of the Bible). Temu.
HELIOPOLIS. _Maṭarîyah._
14. =Khent-ȧbt.= =Tchal.= TANIS. Horus.
_Ṣân._
15. =Teḥuti.= =Pa-Teḥuti.= HERMOPOLIS MINOR. Thoth.
16. =Ḥātmeḥit.= =Pa-Ba-neb Ṭeṭ.= MENDES. Osiris.
_Tmai al-Amdîd._
17. =Sam-Beḥuṭet.= =Pa-Khen-en-Ȧmen.= DIOSPOLIS. Ȧmen-Rā.
18. =Ȧm-Khent.= =Pa-Bast.= PIBESETH BUBASTIS. Bast.
_Tall Basṭah._
19. =Ȧm-peḥ.= =Pa-Uatchet.= BUTO. Uatchet.
20. =Sepṭ.= =Kesem.= PHAKUSSA. Sepṭ.
_Fakûs._
The =Sûdân= was divided into =13 nomes=:
1. =Peḥ-Qennes.= The region south of Meroë.
2. =Maruat.= Meroë. Bagrawîr. Ȧmen.
3. =Napt.= Napata. Ȧmen.
4. =Peten-Ḥeru.= Pontyris. Horus.
5. =Pa-Nebset.= Pnups. Thoth.
6. =Ta-Uatchet.= Autoba (?).
7. =Behent.= Boôn. Wâdî Ḥalfah. Horus.
8. =Ȧtefthit.= Tasitia (?).
9. =Nehȧu.= Noa.
10. =Meḥit.= Meae. Horus.
11. =Maamet.= Ibrîm. Horus.
12. =Bekt.= Bok. Kubbân. Horus.
13. =Ḥet-Khent.= P-ȧlek. Philae. Bilâk. Isis.
Under the Ptolemies, the district between Elephantine and Philae was
called =Dodekaschoinos=, because it contained twelve schoinoi, or
measures of land, but later this term was applied to the whole region
between Elephantine and Hiera Sykaminos.
Under the late Roman emperors many of the nomes were subdivided, probably
for convenience in levying taxes, and in still later times the governor
of a nome, or province, bore the title of Duke (Δουξ).
=Modern Egypt= is divided into =14 provinces=:
LOWER EGYPT.
Province. Capital.
1. Baḥêrah. Damanhûr.
2. Ḳalyûbîyah. Benha.
3. Sharkîyah. Zaḳâzîḳ.
4. Dakhâlîyah. Manṣûrah.
5. Manûfîyah. Menûf.
6. Gharbîyah. Ṭanṭa.
UPPER EGYPT.
Province. Capital.
1. Gîzah. Gîzah.
2. Beni-Suwêf. Beni-Suwêf.
3. Minyah. Minyah.
4. Asyûṭ. Asyûṭ.
5. Girgah. Ṣûhâḳ.
6. Ḳena. Ḳena.
7. Nûba. Aswân.
8. Fayyûm. Madînat al-Fayyûm.
The towns of Cairo, Alexandria, Port Sa’îd, Suez, Damietta, etc., are
generally governed each by a native ruler.
The provinces of the Sûdân are as follows:
1. Baḥr al-Ghazâl. 2. Berber. 3. Blue Nile Province. 4. Dongola. 5.
Ḥalfah. 6. Kassala. 7. Kharṭûm Province. 8. Kordofân. 9. Mongalla. 10.
Red Sea Province. 11. Sennaar. 12. Upper Nile Province. 13. White Nile
Province.
CHAPTER II.
ETHNOGRAPHY. THE LAND OF PUNT. NATIONAL CHARACTER. POPULATION. LANGUAGE.
FORMS OF WRITING. DECIPHERMENT OF EGYPTIAN HIEROGLYPHICS. YOUNG AND
CHAMPOLLION. HIEROGLYPHIC ALPHABET AND WRITING. WRITING MATERIALS.
The =Egyptians=.—The evidence of the monuments and the literature of
Egypt proves that the Egyptians were of African origin, and that they
were akin to the light-skinned peoples who inhabited the north-east
portion of the African Continent. Further evidence of this fact is
supplied by the “table of nations” preserved in the tenth chapter of
Genesis, where it is stated that Cush and Mizraim were the sons of Ham.
Now this Cush, or Ethiopia, is not the country which we call Abyssinia,
but the Northern Sûdân, or Nubia; therefore the Nubians (Cush) and the
Egyptians (Mizraim) were brethren, and they were Hamites, or Africans.
The relationship between the Nubians and the Egyptians is also asserted
by Diodorus, who declared that the Egyptians were descended from a colony
of Ethiopians, _i.e._, Nubians, who had settled in Egypt. And there is
no doubt that from the earliest to the latest times a very close bond
existed between the Northern Nubians and the Egyptians, which manifested
itself in the religion and religious ceremonies of both peoples. The
Cushites were dark in colour, sometimes actually black, but there is no
evidence which proves they were negroes; and the Egyptians were red, or
brown-red, or reddish yellow in colour. On the west of the Nile Valley
lived the fair-skinned Libyans; on the east the remote ancestors of the
Blemmyes and the modern Bîshârî tribes, who were of a light brownish
colour, and on the south, near the Equator, were negro tribes, which
formed part of the great belt of black peoples that extended right across
Africa, from sea to sea.
The dynastic Egyptians appear to have regarded a country, or district,
called =Pun= 𓊪𓃹𓈖𓏏𓈉 as their original home, and they certainly
preserved down to the latest times some of the peculiarities in dress
of the primitive inhabitants of that region. That Punt was situated a
considerable distance to the south of Egypt is certain, and that it could
be reached by land, and also by water by way of the Red Sea, is clear
from the inscriptions, but there is no evidence available which enables
the exact limits of the country to be defined. The despatch of several
expeditions to Punt by the Egyptians is recorded, for the purpose of
bringing back _ānti_ spice, 𓂝𓈖𓅂𓏊𓏧, or myrrh, which was used freely for
embalming purposes. They started from some point on the Red Sea near
the modern town of Ḳuṣêr, and sailed southwards until they reached the
river of the port of Punt which was situated on the east coast of Africa,
probably in Somaliland. The expedition despatched by Queen Ḥātshepset
about B.C. 1550 brought back boomerangs, a huge pile of myrrh, logs
of ebony, elephants’ tusks, sweet-smelling woods, eye-paint, various
kinds of spices, dog-headed apes, monkeys, leopard (or panther) skins,
“green” (_i.e._, pale) gold, and gold rings which are to this day used
as currency in East Africa and are known as “ring money.” Now, all these
things are products of the region which lies between the southern end
of the Red Sea, the Indian Ocean, and the Valley of the Nile, and it
is impossible not to conclude that Punt was situated somewhere in it.
The Egyptian expeditions probably sailed up a river for a considerable
distance, to a point where the products of Punt were brought by trading
caravans for export, and there the Egyptians bartered for the myrrh,
etc., which they required. The market place must have been inland, for
the huts of the natives are represented in the bas-reliefs as standing
close to the river.
The =men of Punt= wore a =pointed beard= and a =loin cloth=, which was
kept in position by a kind of belt, from which hung down behind the
=tail of an animal=. The beard of the Egyptian was also pointed, and
gods, kings, and priestly officials on solemn, ceremonial occasions,
wore tails. Thus in the Papyrus of Ani (Judgment Scene) the gods Thoth
and Anubis wear tails, and the priestly official in the same scene wears
the leopard’s skin, the tail of which is supposed to be hanging behind
him. In two statues of Ȧmen-ḥetep III (Northern Egyptian Gallery, Nos.
412, 413), the tail is supposed to be brought forward under the body of
the king, and its end is carefully sculptured on the space between his
legs. The custom of wearing tails is common in Central Africa at the
present day, even the women, in some places, wearing long tails of bast
(Schweinfurth, _Heart of Africa_, I, p. 295); and a recent traveller
reports that the Gazum people wear tails, about six inches long, for
which they dig holes in the ground when they sit down (Boyd Alexander,
_From the Niger_, I, p. 78). Many other points of comparison between the
Egyptians and the peoples of Central Africa could be mentioned in proof
of the views that the indigenous dynastic Egyptians were connected with
the people of Punt, and that Punt was situated in the South-Eastern Sûdân.
As to the =succession of peoples= in the Nile Valley, or rather of that
portion of it which is called Egypt, many theories have been formulated
in recent years. Some of the most competent authorities think that the
earliest dwellers in Egypt were black folk, who were driven out or killed
off by a race of people who possessed many of the characteristics of the
Libyans, and who came from the west, or south-west, and took possession
of Egypt. It is thought that the next invasions of the country were made
by peoples who came from the east, or south-east, and, having settled
down on the Nile, mingled with the inhabitants. After these it seems
very probable that Egypt was invaded by tribes whose home was some part
of Western Asia, probably the country now called Southern Babylonia.
Some think that they entered Egypt by the Isthmus of Suez, and others
that they crossed from Arabia to Africa by the straits of Bâb al-Mandib
at the southern end of the Red Sea. Another view is that the invaders
entered Egypt by the Wâdî Ḥammâmât, and that they arrived on the Nile at
some place near the modern town of Ḳena. Little by little the invaders
conquered the country, and introduced into it the arts of agriculture,
brick-making, writing, working in metals, etc. Wheat, barley, and the
domestic sheep seem to have been brought into Egypt about this time. The
manners and customs of the new comers were very different from those
of the men they conquered, and their civilization was of a much higher
character than that of the primitive Egyptians; but, among the great
bulk of the population, the beliefs, religion, and habits continued to
preserve unchanged their characteristic African nature.
[Illustration: 1 2 3 4 5 6]
What the physical form of the primitive, pre-dynastic Egyptian was cannot
be said, but it is probable that he resembled the dynastic Egyptians
whose pictures are seen by hundreds in the tombs. If this be so, he was
tall, slender of body, with long thin legs, small hands, and long feet.
His hair was black and curly, but must not be confounded with the “wool”
of the negro, his eyes black and slightly almond-shaped, his cheek-bones
high and often prominent, his nose straight—sometimes aquiline—and
inclined to be fleshy; his mouth wide, with somewhat full lips, his teeth
small and regular and his chin prominent, because his under jaw was
thrust slightly forward. The women were yellowish in colour, probably
because their bodies were not so much exposed to the rays of the sun as
those of the men. The general character of the physique of the Egyptian
has remained practically unchanged to the present day, and no admixture
of foreign elements has affected it permanently.
[Illustration: 7
Ivory figure of a king.
1st dynasty (?)
[No. 197, Table-case L, Third Egyptian Room.]]
[Illustration: 8
Bone figure of a dwarf.
Archaïc Period.
[No. 42, Table-case L, Third Egyptian Room.]]
[Illustration: 9
Bone figure of a woman carrying a child on her shoulder.
Archaïc Period.
[No. 41, Table-case L, Third Egyptian Room.]]
[Illustration: 10
Bone figure of a woman, with inlaid lapis-lazuli eyes.
Archaïc Period.
[No. 40, Table-case L, Third Egyptian Room.]]
The physical features and dress of the primitive dynastic Egyptians are
well illustrated by the accompanying drawings and photographs. From Nos.
1-6 (page 23) we see that their hair was short and curly, their noses
long and pointed, their eyes almond-shaped, their beards pointed, their
arms and legs long, their hands large, and their feet long and flat. They
wear in their hair feathers, probably red feathers from the tails of
parrots, such as are worn at the present day, and their loin cloths are
fastened round their bodies by belts, from which hang short, bushy tails
of jackals(?). No. 1 bears a hawk-standard, the symbol of the god of the
tribe, and is armed with a mace having a diamond-shaped head. No. 2 bears
a hawk-standard and wields a double-headed stone axe. No. 3 is armed with
a mace and a bow. No. 4 is shooting a flint-tipped arrow from a bow. No.
5 is armed with a boomerang and a spear, and No. 6 with a mace and a
boomerang. The above illustrations are drawn from the green slate shield
exhibited in Table-case L in the Third Egyptian Room.
To about the same period belongs the ivory figure of a king here
reproduced (No. 7). He wears the Crown of the South, and a garment
worked with an elaborate diamond pattern. The nose is flatter and more
fleshy than in the drawings from the slate shield, and the lips are
fuller and firmer. In figures 8-10 we have representations of the women
of the Archaïc Period, about B.C. 4200. No. 8 is a female dwarf, or
perhaps a woman who belonged to one of the pygmy tribes that lived near
the Equator. No. 9 is a most interesting figure, for it illustrates the
hair-dressing and dress of the period. The features of the child, who is
carried partly on the back and partly on the left shoulder, as at the
present day, are well preserved. No. 10 represents a woman of slim build,
with blue eyes, and wearing an elaborate head-dress, which falls over her
shoulders.
PORTRAIT FIGURES OF OFFICIALS OF THE IIIRD OR IVTH DYNASTY. ABOUT B.C.
3700.
[Illustration: Figure of Betchmes, a royal kinsman.
[Vestibule, South Wall, No. 3.]]
[Illustration: Painted limestone figure of Nefer-hi.
[No. 150, Wall-case 99, Third Egyptian Room.]]
=National Character.=—Herodotus, who was an acute observer of the manners
and customs of the Egyptians, states (ii, 64) that the Egyptians were
“beyond measure scrupulous in all matters appertaining to =religion=,”
and the monuments prove him to be absolutely correct. The Egyptian
worshipped his God, whose chief symbol to him was the sun, daily and
regularly, and prayed to him morning and evening. His attitude towards
his Maker was one of absolute =resignation=. The power of God, as
displayed by the Sun, and the River Nile, and other forces of nature
filled him with awe, and made him to realize his helplessness. His
views as to the dependence of men on the sun are well illustrated by
the following extract from a hymn to Ȧten, the god of the Solar Disk:
“When thou settest in the western horizon of heaven, the earth becometh
dark with the darkness of the dead. Men sleep in their houses, their
heads are covered up, their nostrils are closed, and no man can see his
neighbour; everything which they possess could be stolen from under their
heads without their knowing it. All the lions come forth from their dens,
every creeping thing biteth, the smithy is in blackness, and all the
earth is silent because he who made them (_i.e._, all creatures) resteth
in his horizon. When the dawn cometh, and thou risest and shinest from
the Disk, darkness flieth away, thou givest forth thy rays, and the Two
Lands (_i.e._, Egypt) are in festival. Men rise up, they stand upon their
feet—it is thou who hast raised them—they wash their bodies, and dress
themselves in their clothes, and they [stretch out] their hands to thee
in thanksgiving for thy rising.” To the god of the city, or local deity,
he also paid due reverence. He worshipped Osiris, the type and symbol
of the resurrection, most truly, for on his help and succour depended
his =hope of eternal life=. The Egyptians, who were men of means, spent
largely during their lifetime in making preparations for their death, and
they spared neither money nor pains in their endeavours to secure for
themselves life in the Other World. They observed the =Religious= and
=Civil Laws= most carefully, and any breach they might make in either
they thought could be amply atoned for by making offerings or payment.
[Illustration: The fox playing the double pipes for a flock of goats to
march to.
[From a papyrus in the British Museum, No. 10,016.]]
[Illustration: A mouse seated on a chair, with a table of food before it.
A cat is presenting to it a palm branch, and behind it is a mouse bearing
a fan, etc.
[From a papyrus in the British Museum, No. 10,016.]]
The Egyptian was easy and simple in disposition, and fond of pleasure and
of the good things of this world. He loved eating and drinking, and he
lost no opportunity of enjoying himself. The literature of all periods is
filled with passages in which the living are exhorted to be happy; and
we may note that in the famous Dialogue between a man who is weary of
life and his soul, the latter tells the man that to remember the grave
only brings sorrow to the heart and fills the eyes with tears. And after
several observations of the same import, the soul says: “Hearken unto
me, for, behold, it is good for men to hearken; follow after pleasure
and forget care.”[4] In the Song of the Harper we read: “Bodies (_i.e._,
men) have come into being in order to pass away since the time of Rā, and
young men come in their places. Rā placeth himself in the sky in the
morning, and Temu setteth in the Mountain of Sunset. Men beget children
and women bring forth, and every nostril snuffeth the wind of dawn from
the time of their birth to the day when they go to the place which is
assigned to them. Make [thy] day happy! Let there be perfumes and sweet
odours for thy nostrils, and let there be wreaths of flowers and lilies
for the neck and shoulders of thy beloved sister who shall be seated by
thy side. Let there be songs and the music of the harp before thee, and
setting behind thy back unpleasant things of every kind, remember only
pleasure, until the day cometh wherein thou must travel to the land which
loveth silence.”
[Illustration: A cat herding geese.
[From a papyrus in the British Museum, No. 10,016.]]
The advice to eat, drink, and be happy, is also given to a high-priest
of Memphis by his dead wife That-I-em-ḥetep on her sepulchral tablet
(Southern Egyptian Gallery, Bay 29, No. 1027). She says: “Hail, my
brother, husband, friend, ... let[5] not thy heart cease to drink water,
to eat bread, to drink wine, to love women, to make a happy day, and to
seek thy heart’s desire by day and by night. And set no care whatsoever
in thy heart: are the years which [we pass] upon the earth so many [that
we need do this]?”
[Illustration: The lion and the unicorn playing a game of draughts.
[From a papyrus in the British Museum, No. 10,016.]]
The =morality= of the Egyptians was of a high character, and certainly
higher than that of Oriental nations in general. Many of the Precepts
of Ptaḥ-ḥetep, Kaqemna, and Khensu-ḥetep bear comparison with the moral
maxims of the Books of Proverbs and Ecclesiasticus. The view of the
Egyptian as to his =duty towards his neighbour= is well summed up by
Pepi-Nekht, an old feudal lord of Elephantine, who flourished under
the VIth dynasty, and said: “I am one who spoke good and repeated what
was liked. Never did I say an evil word of any kind to a chief against
anyone, for I wished it to be well with me before the great god. I gave
bread to the hungry man, and clothes to the naked man. I never gave
judgment in a case between two brothers whereby a son was deprived of
his father’s goods. I was loved by my father, favoured by my mother, and
beloved by my brothers and sisters.” =Love of parents and home= was a
strong trait in the character of the Egyptian; and it was one cause of
his hatred of military service and of any occupation which would take him
away from his town or village. He prayed, too, that in the Other World
he might have his parents, wife, children, and relatives, with him on
his farm in the Fields of Peace, and that when his spirit was on the
way thither, the spirits of his kinsfolk would come to meet him, armed
with their staves and weapons, so that they might protect him from the
attack of hostile spirits. Like all African people he loved =music=,
=singing=, and =dancing=, and was attracted by ceremonials, processions,
and display of every kind; the =satirical papyri= (see the illustrations
on pages 27-30), and even the wall-paintings in the tombs, show that
he possessed a keen sense of =humour=. The peasant was then, as now,
a laborious toiler, and as he was literally the slave of Pharaoh for
thousands of years, the ideas of =freedom= and =national independence=,
as we understand them, were wholly unknown to him.
All classes were intensely =superstitious=, and they believed firmly
in the existence of =spirits=, good and bad, =witches=, and fiends and
devils, which they tried to cajole, or wheedle, or placate with gifts,
or to vanquish by means of =spells=, =magical names=, =words of power=,
=amulets= of all kinds, etc. The =magician= was the real priest, to the
lower classes at least, as he is to this day in Central Africa, for by
the use of =magical figures= he assured his clients that he could procure
for them the death, or sickness, of an enemy, riches, the love of women,
dreams wherein the future would be revealed to them, and above all,
the assistance of the gods. We find that about B.C. 312 a service was
regularly performed in the temple of Ȧmen-Rā at Thebes to make the sun
rise. In the course of it a figure of the monster Āpep, who was supposed
to be lying in wait to swallow the Sun-god, was made of wax, then wrapped
in new papyrus on which the “accursed name” of the fiend was written in
green ink, and solemnly burned in a fire fed by a special kind of herb,
whilst the priest spurned it with his left foot and poured out curses on
each of the thirty “accursed names” of the evil one. As the wax melted
and was consumed, together with the papyrus and the green ink with which
his name was written, so the body of Āpep was believed to be consumed in
the flames of the rising sun in the eastern sky.
[Illustration: The spearing of Āpep.]
From the evidence given at Thebes about B.C. 1200 against certain
officials who were implicated in a case of conspiracy against Rameses
III, it appeared that a certain man had stolen a book of magic from the
temple library. From this he obtained instructions how to make the wax
figures which caused the sickness, quakings of the limbs, and death of
those in whose forms they were made. An example of the wax figures which
were used in the Ptolemaïc period is exhibited in Table-case C in the
Third Egyptian Room, No. 198. The core is made of inscribed papyrus,
and in front, in the centre, is a piece of hair, presumably that of
the person on whom the magician who made the figure sought to exert
his influence. Every act of daily life had some magical or religious
observance associated with it, and every day, either in whole or in part,
was declared to be lucky or unlucky, in accordance with a series of
events which were represented by the =Calendar of lucky and unlucky days=.
Superstition played as prominent a part in =medicine= as in religion. The
practice of dismembering the dead in primitive times must have taught
the Egyptians some practical anatomy, and the operations connected with
mummification in the later period must have added largely to their
knowledge of the arrangement of the principal internal organs of the
body. The Egyptians were well acquainted with the importance of the
heart in the human economy, and they appear to have had some knowledge
of the functions of the arteries. A considerable number of =medical
prescriptions= have come down to us, _e.g._, those which are inscribed on
a papyrus in the British Museum (No. 10,059) and are said to be as old
as the time of Khufu (Cheops), a king of the IVth dynasty, and those of
the Ebers Papyrus, of the XVIIIth dynasty; from these it is easy to see
that they closely resemble in many particulars the prescriptions given in
English medical books printed two or three hundred years ago. Powders and
decoctions made from plants and seeds were largely used, and the piths of
certain trees, dates, sycamore-figs, and other fruits, salt, magnesia,
oil, honey, sweet beer, formed the principal ingredients of many
prescriptions. With these were often mixed substances of an unpleasant
nature, _e.g._, bone dust, rancid fat, the droppings of animals, etc. In
order that certain drugs might have the desired effect it was necessary
for the physician to recite a magical formula four times (Ebers Papyrus
CVIII). Other medicines again owed their efficacy to the belief that
they had been actually taken by one or other of the gods whilst they
reigned upon earth, and the authorship of certain prescriptions was
ascribed to Rā. Thus according to the Ebers Papyrus (XLVI) Rā suffered
from attacks of boils of a most malignant kind, and he made up a salve,
containing sixteen ingredients, which gave him instant relief, and which
was therefore certain to cure ordinary mortals. The following is a
characteristic example of a prescription which, as is evident, contains a
number of substances which are well known to be good for inflamed eyes,
and also some others the special value of which is not clear:—
𓎡𓏏𓈖𓏏𓂧𓂋𓂡𓇉𓄿𓍘𓏭𓅓𓁹𓏏𓏤
“Another [prescription] for driving inflammation from the eye.
𓂝𓈖𓅂𓈒𓏦
Myrrh 1
𓎃𓏤𓏜𓏪𓅨𓂋𓈒𓏦
‘Great Protectors’ seed 1
𓍱𓊃𓇌𓏏𓈒
Oxide of copper 1
𓍑𓄿𓂋𓏏𓈒𓏦
Citron pips 1
𓎼𓄿𓇌𓏏𓆰𓎖𓏲𓏰
Northern cypress flowers 1
𓇅𓏲𓈒𓏪
Antimony 1
𓈎𓄿𓇌𓏏𓐎𓏪𓈖𓏏𓎼𓎛𓋴𓄛
Gazelle droppings 1
𓏶𓅓𓏭𓈖𓈎𓄿𓂧𓇌𓏏𓄛
Oryx offal 1
𓌻𓂋𓎛𓏏𓏊𓏪𓌉𓆓𓏏𓇳
White oil 1
[_Directions for use._]
𓂞𓁷𓏤𓈗𓁀 𓂜𓐎𓂝 𓁷𓂋𓋴𓂋𓇳𓏽𓎡𓇌𓆓𓂧 𓎘𓎛𓏲𓂡𓐍𓂋𓎡𓋴𓏏𓅓 𓆄𓆃𓈖𓏏𓈖𓂋𓏏𓅬
“Place in water, let stand for one night, strain through a cloth,
and smear over [the eye] for four days; or, according to another
prescription, paint it on [the eye] with a goose-feather.”[6]
The Egyptian physician was called upon not only to heal his patients, but
to beautify them, and we find prescriptions for removing scurf from the
skin, for changing the colour of the skin, for making the skin smooth,
and the following for removing wrinkles from the face:—
𓎡𓏏𓈖𓏏𓂧𓂋𓂡𓈎𓂋𓆑𓏲𓏼𓏌𓏤𓁷𓏤
“Another [prescription] for driving away wrinkles of the face.”
𓅮𓇌𓏏𓈒𓏼𓈖𓏏𓊹𓌣𓏏𓂋𓈒𓏼
Ball of incense 1
𓏠𓈖𓎛𓈒𓏼
Wax 1
𓆮𓏊𓏼𓇅𓆓𓏛
Fresh oil 1
𓎼𓇋𓏲𓆰𓏥
Cypress berries 1
[_Directions for use._]
𓏌𓂡𓏟𓏜𓂋𓂞𓁷𓏤𓎛𓋴𓐠𓄿𓈗𓏊𓏼𓂋𓂞𓂋𓁷𓏤𓇳𓏤𓏿𓁹𓌴𓁹𓄿𓄿𓎡
“Crush, and rub down and put in new milk and apply it to the face for
six days. Take good heed [to this].”[7]
The =population= of Egypt was, in 1897, 9,734,405 persons, of whom
8,978,775 were Muḥammadans, 25,200 Jews, and 730,162 Christians. The last
census was taken on the 29th April, 1907, and the entire population of
the country consisted of 11,272,000 persons, or nearly 16 per cent. more
than in 1897.
=The Egyptian Language= is not Semitic, although it possesses many
characteristics which resemble those of the Semitic languages, but in
a less developed form. Of all the views on the subject which have been
held in recent years, the most plausible one is that which makes Egyptian
belong to the group of Proto-Semitic languages. The Egyptian and the
Semitic languages appear to have sprung from a common stock, from which
they separated before their grammars and vocabularies were consolidated.
The Egyptian language developed rapidly under circumstances of which
nothing is known, and then, apparently, became crystallized; the Semitic
language developed less rapidly, but continued to develope for centuries
after the growth of the Egyptian language was arrested. To the period
when Egyptian separated itself from the parent stock no date can be
assigned, but it must have taken place some thousands of years before
Christ. Later, under the XVIIIth and XIXth dynasties, B.C. 1550 to 1300,
a large number of Semitic words were introduced into the language, and in
such compositions as the “Travels of an Egyptian” (see page 70) a great
many are transcribed into Egyptian characters.
The Egyptian language as known to us appears in four divisions, viz.:—
1. The Egyptian of the Early Empire, which was studied and employed for
literary purposes from about B.C. 4400 to about A.D. 200.
2. The Egyptian used in the ordinary business of life and for
conversation, from about B.C. 2600 to 650.
3. The popular speech of the country, from about 600 or 500 B.C. to the
end of the Roman Period.
4. The ordinary language of the country, after Christianity was
introduced into it; this is called =Coptic=. It ceased to be used in
Egypt as a spoken language, probably about the twelfth century, but the
Holy Scriptures and the Services are in several places in Egypt read in
Coptic on Sundays and Festivals, although very few people understand
what is being read. Four dialects of Coptic are distinguished: (1)
That of Upper Egypt, called “Sahidic.” (2) That of Lower Egypt, called
“Boheiric.” (3) The dialect of Ṣûhâḳ and its neighbourhood. (4) The
dialect of the district of the Fayyûm. It is a noteworthy fact that,
from the beginning of the second century of our era to the twelfth, the
language of ancient Egypt was preserved, in a modified form, chiefly
through the translations of the Holy Scriptures, which were made from
Greek into Coptic.
[Illustration: A page of hieratic writing from the Great Harris Papyrus.]
=Egyptian Writing= was of three kinds, which are called “Hieroglyphic,”
“Hieratic,” and “Demotic.” The oldest form is the =hieroglyphic= (_i.e._,
sacred engraved writing), or purely pictorial, which was employed in
inscriptions upon temples, tombs, statues, sepulchral tablets, etc.,
and for monumental purposes generally. At a very early period it was
found that the hieroglyphic form of writing was cumbrous, and that in
cases where it was important to write quickly on papyrus, the pictorial
characters were inconvenient. The scribes, therefore, began first to
modify, and secondly to abbreviate the pictorial characters, and at
length the form of writing called =hieratic= (_i.e._, the priests’
writing) was developed. Hieratic was a style of cursive writing much
used by the priests in copying literary compositions on papyrus from
the IVth or Vth dynasty to the XXVIth dynasty. This form of writing is
well illustrated by the above reproduction of a page from the Great
Harris Papyrus in the British Museum (No. 9999), which was written about
B.C. 1200. The text is read from right to left, and the following is a
transcript into hieroglyphic characters of the first two lines:—
1. 𓆓𓂧𓇋𓈖𓇓𓏏𓈖𓀭𓍹𓇳𓄊𓌷𓏏𓆄𓌻𓇋𓏠𓈖𓀭𓍺𓀭𓋹𓍑𓋴
𓅮𓄿𓊹𓀭𓉻𓏛𓐍𓂋𓀙𓏲𓀀𓏪𓄂𓏏𓏲𓏭𓏴𓂻𓀀𓏪𓏌𓏤𓇾𓏤𓈇𓀎𓀀𓏪
𓈖𓏏𓎛𓏏𓂋𓇋𓆳𓄛𓏦𓆷𓄿𓏭𓂋𓂧𓏤𓄿𓈖𓄿𓌙𓀀𓏪𓌔𓏏𓏤𓀀𓏪𓆈𓏏𓏦
2. 𓋹𓈖𓐍𓏲𓀀𓏥𓎟𓏌𓏤𓇾𓏤𓈇𓈖𓇾𓏤𓈇𓌻𓇋𓆳𓊖𓊖𓄔𓅓𓏜𓏲𓈖𓏦𓂞𓏲𓀭
𓂝𓌴𓄿𓅓𓏲𓁻𓏏𓈖𓏦𓅓𓈖𓄿𓇌𓏪𓀭𓅜𓐍𓏲𓏜𓏪𓇋𓀁𓁹𓂋𓏲𓀭𓇋𓏲
𓀭𓅓𓇓𓏏𓈖𓀭𓈖𓂋𓐍𓇌𓅛𓀀𓁐𓏪𓃹𓈖𓅮𓄿𓇾𓏤𓈇𓈖
Between the end of the XXIInd and the beginning of the XXVIth dynasty the
scribes, wishing to simplify hieratic still further, constructed from it
a purely conventional system of signs from which most of the prominent
characteristics of the hieroglyphic, or pictures, that had been preserved
in the hieratic characters, disappeared. This new form of writing was
called =demotic= (_i.e._, the people’s writing), but it was known among
some of the early Egyptologists as =enchorial= (_i.e._, native writing,
or writing of the country). On the Rosetta Stone (Egyptian Gallery, No.
960) the visitor will see an example of the =hieroglyphic and demotic=
forms of writing placed one above the other, and in the text we find that
the hieroglyphic portion is called “the writing of the divine words,” or
letters, 𓏟𓈖𓊹𓌃𓏪, and the demotic “the writing of books,” _i.e._, rolls
of papyrus, 𓏟𓋔𓈚𓂝𓇌𓍽. The invention of the art of writing was assigned
to the god Thoth, who was the great scribe of the gods, and who is
frequently represented holding a writing palette and a reed pen, and the
hieroglyphics, or picture signs, were, therefore, called “divine, sacred,
or holy.” Hieroglyphics were used for monumental purposes until about the
end of the third century A.D., but it is tolerably certain that very few
people could read them or understand them.
[Illustration: Demotic Writing.]
During the Ptolemaïc Period, though =Greek= was the language of the
kings and the upper classes of the country, the temples were covered
with inscriptions in hieroglyphics, and the Ptolemies and the Romans
adopted old Egyptian titles, and had their names transcribed into
hieroglyphics and cut in cartouches like the Pharaohs. In the reigns
of Euergetes I (B.C. 267 to 222) and Epiphanes (B.C. 205 to 181) the
priests promulgated decrees in honour of their kings which were cut on
slabs of basalt in the hieroglyphic, demotic, and Greek characters, but
on the sepulchral tablets of the period the inscriptions are usually in
hieroglyphics alone, because the natives throughout the country clung
to these characters, which had, from time immemorial, been associated
with their religious beliefs and ceremonies. In the Southern Egyptian
Gallery, however, are exhibited several tablets which are inscribed in
demotic as well as in hieroglyphics, and of these may be noted the tablet
of Tut-i-em-ḥetep (No. 1028, Bay 25), who died B.C. 118; the tablet of
Khā-em-ḥrȧ (No. 997, Bay 25); and the tablet of Peṭā Bast (No. 1030,
Bay 27). In the Roman Period we find that the use of demotic sometimes
superseded that of hieroglyphics in public documents, and as an example
of this may be mentioned the fine sandstone tablet inscribed, wholly in
demotic, with a decree recording the dedication of certain properties
to the gods who were worshipped at Karnak (Thebes) in the first century
of our era (No. 993, Bay 27). This tablet was found at Karnak, in the
Hall of Columns, where, no doubt, it was set up originally, and its
inscription was cut in demotic, because, at that period, that form of
writing was better understood than hieroglyphics. In the Roman Period
hieroglyphic inscriptions were sometimes accompanied by renderings into
Greek and Latin, _e.g._, No. 257, Third Egyptian Room, Wall-case No. 109.
This is a portion of a statue of a priest bearing a shrine of Osiris. On
the back of the plinth is an inscription in hieroglyphics containing an
address to Osiris by a priest of the “fourth order,” and on one side of
the plinth are cut in Latin and Greek “priest bearing Osiris.”
=Coptic= is written with the letters of the Greek alphabet, and seven
signs (ϣ, ϥ, ϧ, ϩ, ϫ, ϭ, ϯ), derived from demotic characters, the
phonetic values of which could not be expressed by Greek letters. A fine
collection of sepulchral tablets inscribed in Coptic is exhibited in the
Southern Egyptian Gallery (Bay 32), and a long and most instructive
series of drafts of documents on potsherds and slices of limestone will
be found in Table-case M in the Fourth Egyptian Room. In the copy of the
=Lord’s Prayer= (St. Matthew vi, 9) here appended the reader will find
all the signs which are peculiar to Coptic save one (ϭ). The dialect is
that of Lower Egypt. The two words marked by asterisks are Greek, not
Egyptian.
ⲡⲉⲛⲓⲱⲧ ⲉⲧϧⲉⲛ ⲛⲓⲫⲏⲟⲩⲓ ⲙⲁⲣⲉϥⲧⲟⲩⲃⲟ ⲛ̅ϫⲉⲡⲉⲕⲣⲁⲛ.
_Peniôt_ _etkhen_ _niphêoui_ _mareftoubo_ _entche pekran._
Our Father who art in the heavens, may be hallowed thy name.
ⲙⲁⲣⲉⲥⲓ ⲛ̀ϫⲉⲧⲉⲕⲙⲉⲧⲟⲩⲣⲟ. ⲡⲉⲧⲉϩⲛⲁⲕ ⲙⲁⲣⲉϥϣⲱⲡⲓ ⲙⲫⲣⲏϯ
_Maresi_ _entche tekmetouro._ _Peteḥnak_ _marefshôpi_ _emphrêti_
May come thy kingdom. Thy will let it be as
ϧⲉⲛ ⲧⲫⲉ ⲛⲉⲙ ϩⲓϫⲉⲛ ⲡⲓⲕⲁϩⲓ. ⲡⲉⲛⲱⲓⲕ ⲛ̅ⲧⲉ
_khen_ _tphe_ _nem_ _ḥitchen_ _pikaḥi._ _Penôik_ _ente_
in the heaven so upon the earth. Our bread of
ⲣⲁⲥϯ ⲙⲏⲓϥ ⲛⲁⲛ ⲙ̅ⲫⲟⲟⲩ. ⲟⲩⲟϩ ⲭⲁ ⲛⲉⲧⲉⲣⲟⲛ
_rasti_ _mêif_ _nan_ _emphoou._ _Ouoḥ_ _kha_ _neteron_
to-morrow give it to us to-day. And forgive our debts
ⲛⲁⲛ ⲉⲃⲟⲗ ⲙ̅ⲫⲣⲏϯ ϩⲱⲛ ⲛ̀ⲧⲉⲛⲭⲱ ⲉⲃⲟⲗ ⲛ̅ⲛⲏ ⲉⲧⲉⲟⲩⲟⲛ
_nan_ _ebol_ _emphrêti_ _ḥôn_ _entenkhô ebol ennê_ _eteouon_
to us as we also forgive those who are
ⲛ̀ⲧⲁⲛ ⲉⲣⲱⲟⲩ. ⲟⲩⲟϩ ⲙ̅ⲡⲉⲣⲉⲛⲧⲉⲛ ⲉϧⲟⲩⲛ ⲉ ⲡⲓⲣⲁⲥⲙⲟⲥ.* ⲁⲗⲗⲁ*
_entan erôou._ _ouoḥ_ _emperenten_ _ekhoun_ _e_ _pirasmos,_ _alla_
our debtors. And bring us not into temptation; but
ⲛⲁϩⲙⲉⲛ ⲉⲃⲟⲗϩⲁ ⲡⲓⲡⲉⲧϩⲱⲟⲩ.
_naḥmen_ _ebolḥa_ _pipetḥôou._
deliver us from that which is evil.
[Illustration: Coptic inscription on a slice of limestone.
[No. 10, Table-case M, Third Egyptian Room.]]
=Decipherment of Egyptian Hieroglyphics.=—Before the close of the
period of Roman rule in Egypt, the hieroglyphic system of writing fell
into disuse, and its place was gradually taken by demotic, _i.e._, a
conventional form of the hieratic, or cursive writing. When the Egyptians
became converted to Christianity, they adopted the Greek alphabet,
adding to it seven signs derived from demotic, to express the sounds
peculiar to their language. The priests appear to have prosecuted some
study of hieroglyphics until the end of the fifth century A.D., but soon
after this the power to read and understand them was lost, and until
the beginning of the nineteenth century, no Oriental or European could
read or understand a hieroglyphic inscription. During the seventeenth
and eighteenth centuries many attempts were made by scholars to read and
translate the Egyptian inscriptions, but no real progress was made until
after the discovery of the =Rosetta Stone=. This “Stone” is a portion of
a large black basalt stele measuring 3 feet 9 inches by 2 feet 4½ inches,
and is inscribed with fourteen lines of =hieroglyphics=, thirty-two
lines of =demotic=, and fifty-four lines of =Greek=. (See Southern
Egyptian Gallery, No. 960.) It was found in 1798 by a French officer of
artillery named Boussard, among the ruins of Fort Saint Julien, near the
Rosetta mouth of the Nile, and was removed, in 1799, to the _Institut
National_ at Cairo, to be examined by the learned; and Napoleon ordered
the inscription to be engraved and copies of it to be submitted to the
scholars and learned societies of Europe. In 1801 it passed into the
possession of the British, and it was sent to England in February,
1802. It was exhibited for a few months in the rooms of the Society of
Antiquaries, and then was finally deposited in the British Museum.
[Illustration: The “Rosetta Stone.”
[Southern Egyptian Gallery, No. 960.]]
The =first translation of the Greek text= was made by Du Theil and
Weston, in 1801-02, and they rightly declared that the stone was set
up as the result of a Decree passed at the General Council of Egyptian
priests assembled at Memphis to celebrate the first commemoration of the
coronation of =Ptolemy V, Epiphanes=, king of all Egypt. The young king
had been crowned in the eighth year of his reign, therefore the first
commemoration took place in the ninth year, in the spring of the year,
B.C. 196. The Decree sets forth that, because the king had given corn and
money from his private resources to the temples, and had remitted taxes
and released prisoners, and had abolished the press-gang and restored the
worship of the gods, etc., the priests decreed that: Additional honours
be paid to the king and his ancestors; an image of the king be set up in
every temple; a statue and shrine be set up in every temple; a monthly
festival be established on the birthday and coronation day of the king;
this Decree be engraved upon a hard stone stele in the writing of the
priests (hieroglyphic), in the writing of books (demotic), and in the
writing of the Greeks (Greek), and set up in every temple of the first,
second, and third class, by the side of the image of the king.
In 1802 =Åkerblad= succeeded in making out the general meaning of
several lines of the demotic text, and in identifying the equivalents of
the names Alexander, Alexandria, Ptolemy, etc. In 1819 =Thomas Young=
published in the _Encyclopaedia Britannica_, vol. IV, the results of his
studies of the texts, and among them was a list of several alphabetic
Egyptian characters to which, in most cases, he had assigned correct
values. He was the first to grasp the idea of a =phonetic principle=
in the reading of the Egyptian hieroglyphics, and he was the first to
apply it to their decipherment. Warburton, De Guignes, Barthélemy and
Zoëga all _suspected_ the existence of alphabetic hieroglyphics, and
the three last-named scholars believed that the oval, or _cartouche_ 𓍷,
contained a royal name; but it was Young who first proved both points
and successfully deciphered the name of =Ptolemy= on the Rosetta Stone,
and that of =Berenice= on another monument, and it was Bankes who first
identified the name of =Cleopatra=. The list of alphabetic characters was
much enlarged in 1822 by the eminent scholar =Champollion=, who not only
correctly deciphered the names and titles of most of the Roman Emperors,
but drew up classified lists of the hieroglyphics, and formulated a
system of grammar and general decipherment which is the foundation upon
which all subsequent Egyptologists have worked. The discovery of the
correct alphabetic values of Egyptian signs was most useful for reading
names, but, for translating the language, a competent knowledge of
Coptic was required. Now Coptic is only another name for Egyptian.
The Egyptian Christians are called “Copts,” and the Holy Scriptures,
Liturgies, etc., which they translated from Greek soon after their
conversion to Christianity, are said to be written in “Coptic.” The
knowledge of Coptic has never been lost, and a comparatively large sacred
literature has always been available for study by scholars. Champollion,
quite early in the nineteenth century, realized the great importance of
Coptic for the purpose of Egyptian decipherment, and he made himself the
greatest Coptic scholar of his time. His knowledge of Coptic was deep and
wide, and to this important qualification much of his success is due.
Having once obtained a correct value of many alphabetic and syllabic
characters, his knowledge of Coptic helped him to deduce the values of
others, and to assign meanings to Egyptian words with marvellous accuracy.
The method by which the greater part of the Egyptian alphabet was
recovered is this: It was assumed correctly that the _cartouche_ always
contained a royal name. The only _cartouche_ on the Rosetta Stone was
assumed to contain the name Ptolemy. An obelisk brought from Philae about
that time contained a hieroglyphic inscription, and a translation of
it in Greek, which mentioned two names, Ptolemy and Cleopatra, and one
of the _cartouches_ was filled with hieroglyphic characters which were
identical with those in the cartouche on the Rosetta Stone. Thus there
was good reason to believe that the _cartouche_ on the Rosetta Stone
contained the name of Ptolemy written in hieroglyphic characters. Here is
the _cartouche_ which was assumed to represent the name =Ptolemaios=, or
=Ptolemy=, the hieroglyphics being numbered (A)—
=A= 𓍹𓊪𓏏𓍯𓃭𓐝𓇌𓋴𓍺
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
and here is the _cartouche_ which was assumed to represent the name
=Cleopatra= (B)—
=B= 𓍹𓈎𓃭𓇋𓍯𓊪𓄿𓂧𓂋𓄿𓏏𓆇𓍺
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11
Now in B, the first sign, 𓈎, must represent =K=; it is not found in A.
No. 2 sign, 𓃭, is identical with No. 4 sign in A. This was assumed to be
=L=. No. 3 sign, 𓇋, represents a vowel, and doubled, 𓇌, is found in A,
No. 6. No. 4 sign, 𓍯, is identical with No. 3 in A, and it must have the
value of =O= in both A and B. No. 5 sign, 𓊪, is identical with No. 1 in
A, and as A contains the name Ptolemy, the first sign, 𓊪, must be =P=.
No. 6 sign, 𓄿, is wanting in A, but its value must be =A=, because it is
the same sign as No. 9, which ends the name Kleopatra. No. 7, 𓂧, does not
occur in A, but we see it in other _cartouches_ taking the place of 𓏏 the
second letter in the name of Ptolemaios, and it must therefore be some
kind of =T=. No. 8, 𓂋, we assume is =R=, because it is the last letter
but one in the name of Kleopatra. Nos. 10 and 11 signs, 𓏏𓆇, we find
after the names of goddesses; the first of them is =T=; and the second
is a “determinative.” We now insert the alphabetic values in the two
_cartouches_ and obtain the following results:
=A= 𓍹PTOL𓐝𓇌𓋴𓍺
=B= 𓍹KL(?) OPATR(?)A𓏏𓆇𓍺
In the case of =A= it is quite clear that PTOL is the first part of the
name of Ptolemaios, therefore 𓐝𓇌𓋴 must represent the second part of the
name, or MAIOS. We may then say that 𓐝 is =M=, and the last sign 𓋴 is
=S=, and that 𓇌 represents some _i_-sound, or _e_-sound; in the case of
~B~ we are certain of the values of all the signs except 𓈎, 𓂋 and 𓆇, but
it is clear from their positions in the name that the first two must
represent ~K~ and ~R~. We have seen that the signs 𓏏𓆇 are added to the
names of goddesses, and as Kleopatra was regarded as a goddess, they are
added to her name. They do not affect the name itself. The two royal
names may now be taken out of the _cartouches_, and the values written
under the characters thus:
=A= 𓊪 𓏏 𓍯 𓃭 𓐝 𓇌 𓋴
P T O L M (I or E) S
=B= 𓈎 𓃭 𓇋 𓍯 𓊪 𓄿 𓂧 𓂋 𓄿 𓏏𓆇
K L E(?) O P A T R A ...
Taking another _cartouche_ 𓍹𓄿𓃭𓎡𓋴𓇋𓈖𓂧𓂋𓊃𓍺 we already know the signs,
𓄿𓃭𓋴𓇋𓂧𓂋, which represent ~A~, ~L~, ~S~, ~E~(?), ~T~, and ~R~. The only
Greek name which contains these letters in this order is =Alexandros=, or
Alexander, and we therefore conclude that the last sign, 𓊃, is ~S~, that
𓎡 is ~K~, that 𓇋 is ~A~, and that 𓈖 is ~N~.
A common title of the Roman Emperors was 𓎡𓇌𓋴𓂋𓊃, and as we know all the
signs but one (𓇌) with certainty we write down ~K~-𓇌-~S~-~R~-~S~, which
can only be “Kaisaros,” or “Caesar.” From this we again see that 𓇌
represents the αι in Καισαρος and Πτολεμαιος, or _ae_ in Caesar.
In this way the Egyptian alphabet was recovered.
Now if we look at the last line of the Egyptian text on the Rosetta
Stone we shall find that in the _cartouche_ 𓍹𓊪𓏏𓍯𓃭𓐝𓇌𓋴𓋹𓆓𓏏𓇾𓊪𓏏𓎛𓌻𓇌𓍺
there are several signs which have not been explained above, viz.,
𓋹𓆓𓏏𓇾𓊪𓏏𓎛𓌻𓇌. These signs, it is clear, form no part of the name of
Ptolemy, and the position in which they are found suggests that they
represent _titles_. A reference to the Greek version (line 49) shows
that Ptolemy is there called “everliving, beloved of Phtha,” and it now
remains to see if the hieroglyphics mean anything like these words.
The sound and meaning of the first sign, 𓋹, were well known from the
statements of Greek writers who said that it was pronounced _anch_,
and that it meant “living,” or “life.” Two of the three characters in
the group, 𓊪𓏏𓎛, we know to be ~P~ and ~T~, and we are justified in
assuming that 𓊪𓏏𓎛 represents the name of the god Phtha, or as it is now
read _Ptaḥ_. Now, if 𓋹 means “living” or “life,” and 𓊪𓏏𓎛 means “Ptaḥ,”
𓆓𓏏𓇾 must mean “for ever,” and 𓌻𓇌 must mean “beloved.” Of the first
group, 𓆓𓏏𓇾, we already know the value of the second sign 𓏏, ~T~,
and of the second group we know that 𓇌 has the value of ~I~. Recourse
must now be had to Coptic, so that the Coptic (_i.e._, Egyptian) words
for “for ever” and “beloved” may be compared with the hieroglyphic
originals. The common word for “for ever,” “eternity,” etc., is _eneḥ_,
but there is no _n_ in 𓆓𓏏𓇾, so this will not suit. We do, however,
find the word ϭⲉⲧ, _djet_, which means “an age,” “a long undefined period
of time,” and this agrees well with the sound of 𓆓𓏏𓇾, and shows
that the sound of 𓆓 was something like ~DJ~, and that 𓇾 must have a ~T~
sound. The common word in Coptic for “to love” is ⲙⲉⲣ, _mer_, and we may
therefore transcribe 𓌻𓇌 by _meri_, and assume that it means something
like “beloved.” As the meanings here deduced for 𓋹𓆓𓏏𓇾𓊪𓏏𓎛𓌻𓇌 make good
sense in every text in which they occur we are justified in assuming them
to be correct.
The Egyptian =alphabetic characters= are as follow:—
𓄿 A The Hebrew _aleph_ א.
𓇋 Ȧ
𓂝 Ā Pronounced like the Hebrew ע.
𓇌 or 𓏭 I The Hebrew _yodh_ י.
𓅱 or 𓏲 U or W The Hebrew וּ and ו. It had sometimes
an _o_-sound, like the Hebrew וֺ.
𓃀 B Hebrew ב.
𓊪 P ” פ.
𓆑 F
𓅓 ⎫ M ” מ.
𓐝 ⎭
𓈖 ⎫ N ” נ.
𓋔 ⎭
𓂋 ⎫ R and L ” ר and ל.
𓃭 ⎭
𓉔 H ” ה.
𓎛 Ḥ ” ח.
𓐍 χ (KH) ” כ, without the Dagesh.
𓊃 ⎫ S ” ס or שׂ.
𓋴 ⎭
𓈚 SH ” שׁ.
𓎡 K ” כּ.
𓈎 Q ” ק.
𓎼 Ḳ ” ג.
𓏏 T ” תּ.
𓍿 ⎫ TH(?) ” ת (?).
𓍘 ⎭
𓂧 Ṭ ” ט.
𓆓 TCH or Ṣ (?) ” צ.
=Hieroglyphic writing.=—The hieroglyph is a =picture= of an object,
animate or inanimate, _e.g._, 𓁹 an eye, 𓃝 a ram, 𓃹 a hare, 𓅐 a vulture,
𓅧 a duck, 𓇼 a star, 𓉶 an obelisk, 𓁷 a face, 𓂾 a leg.
Now pictures may also represent =ideas=, _e.g._, 𓊊, a wall leaning on
one side represents “falling”; 𓄤, a musical instrument, symbolizes “joy,
happiness, pleasure,” etc.; 𓋩, a seal, represents something of which
great care is taken, _i.e._, “treasure”; 𓀋, a man holding a vessel placed
on his head, symbolizes “to bear, to carry”; , the sky with a star
hanging from it, suggests “night”; and so on. Hieroglyphs used in this
way are called =ideographs=. Every object had a name, therefore each
picture, or hieroglyph, was a word-sign, and a list of these would have
made a dictionary in the earliest times. At one time all hieroglyphs were
syllabic, and the Egyptians had no alphabetic hieroglyphs; and if scribes
had needed to write down letter by letter the name of some foreign
product, or the name of a foreign king, supposing they did not possess
syllables suitable in sound, they would have been unable to do so. In
fact the Egyptians needed an =alphabet=, and the oldest inscriptions of
any length show that they already possessed one.
About the origin of =alphabetic hieroglyphs= opinions differ. They
probably arose in this way. The sounds of the first letters of the names
of certain objects were given to the pictures of such objects, and
henceforward the pictures, or hieroglyphs, bore those phonetic values,
and so became the letters of an alphabet. Each name chosen for this
purpose appears to have consisted of a syllable containing an initial
consonant, and one or more vowels. The vowel, or vowels, was dropped, and
the name of the object, or the syllable, passed into a purely alphabetic
value. Thus 𓃀 is an alphabetic hieroglyph with the phonetic value of B,
and it may well represent the consonant of some word like _Bu_ “a place,”
or _Bȧa_ “iron.” Similarly 𓂋, which has the phonetic value of R, probably
represents the consonant of some word like _Ru_ “mouth,” in Coptic _Rô_;
and 𓆑 with the phonetic value of F probably represents the consonant
of some word like _fa_ “to carry.” Thus we have a series of alphabetic
characters or letters. Signs having alphabetic values are used to form
words without any reference to their pictorial or ideographic meanings.
One of the words for “knife” is _sfnṭ_, which is thus spelt 𓋴𓆑𓈖𓂧. Now
𓋴 _s_ is a picture of a chair-back; 𓆑 _f_ is a picture of a snail(?); 𓈖
_n_ is a picture of the wavy surface of water; and 𓂧 _ṭ_ is a picture of
a human hand stretched out flat; in the word _sfnṭ_ the picture meanings
of the characters play no part, and the signs are used to express
alphabetic sounds only.
As long as the Egyptians used picture writing pure and simple its meaning
was easily understood, but, when they began to spell their words with
alphabetic signs and syllabic values of picture signs which had no
reference whatever to the original meaning of the signs, it was found
necessary to indicate in some way the meaning and even the sounds of many
of the words so written. This they did by adding to them signs which are
called =determinatives=. Thus the word _āḥa_ 𓊢𓂝 means both “to stand”
and “boat,” but when the writer wished the reader to give it the former
meaning he added to the word a pair of legs 𓂻, thus 𓊢𓂝𓂻, and when the
latter he added the picture of a boat 𓊛, thus 𓊢𓂝𓊛. Similarly _men_ 𓏠𓈖
means “to abide, be stable,” and also “to be ill,” and the meanings
are distinguished by the use of the determinatives 𓏛 and 𓅪, the former
signifying “an abstract idea,” and the latter “discomfort,” or “evil.”
The following words show the use of the determinatives; 𓀭 a god, 𓀁
actions performed with the mouth, 𓁐 a woman, 𓈉 a country, 𓄛 the skin
of an animal, 𓈗 water, 𓌪 actions performed with a knife, and 𓏊 a pot of
unguent or liquid.
The god Khnemu 𓎸𓅓𓅱𓀭
_Meṭu_ “to speak” 𓌃𓂧𓅱𓀁
_Sat_ “daughter” 𓅭𓏏𓁐
_Kesh_ “Nubia” 𓎡𓈚𓈉
_Pennu_ “mouse” 𓊪𓈖𓏌𓅱𓄛
_Mȧu_ “cat” 𓏇𓇋𓅱𓄛 or 𓏇𓇋𓅱𓃠
_Qebḥ_ “libation” 𓈎𓃀𓎛𓈗
_Sma_ “to slay” 𓋴𓌳𓌪
_Merḥet_ “oil” 𓌻𓂋𓎛𓏏𓏊
_Ḥeqt_ “beer” 𓎛𓈎𓏏𓏊
Hieroglyphs are written in perpendicular or horizontal lines as in A and
B. In these examples the words are to be read in the direction in which
the birds face, _i.e._, from left to right.
=A.=
[Illustration: 𓇋𓂋𓃹𓈖𓈖𓎡𓅓𓊃𓏤𓀀
𓇋𓈎𓂋𓏛𓁹𓎡𓅭𓀀𓈖
𓋴𓌳𓄿𓅓𓆭𓏜𓊹[8]]
=B.=
[Illustration: 𓅱𓂋𓂞𓈖𓀀𓏏𓏐𓏥𓈖𓎛𓈎𓏏𓅪𓏥𓈗𓋔𓇋𓃀𓃚𓏭𓈗𓀁𓀀𓎛𓃀
𓋴𓅱𓋳𓏥𓈖𓇉𓄿𓏭𓅱𓋳𓀀𓅖𓄚𓈖𓊛𓃛𓏲𓏭𓊛𓀀[9]]
The =writing materials= consisted of papyrus, palette, reed-pens, ink
and ink-pot. =Papyrus= was made from the stem of the papyrus plant
(_Cyperus Papyrus_), which grew in the marshes and pools near the Nile;
it is no longer cultivated in Egypt, but is found in the Sûdân, where
it grows to a height of from 20 to 25 ft., and has very thick stems.
The exact meaning and derivation of “papyrus” are unknown, but the word
is probably of Egyptian origin.[10] A sheet of papyrus was made in the
following way: The stem was cut into thin strips, which were laid side by
side perpendicularly, and upon these another series of strips was laid
horizontally; a thin solution of gum, or paste, was run in between them,
after which the sheet was pressed and dried. By joining a number of such
sheets together rolls of almost any length could be made. The longest
papyrus in the Egyptian Collection in the British Museum, No. 9999, is
135 ft. long and 1 ft. 5 in. wide; the Papyrus of Ani measures 78 ft. by
1 ft. 3 in.; the Papyrus of Nebseni, 76 ft. by 8¾ in.; the Papyrus of Nu,
65 ft. 6 in. by 1 ft. 1½ in.; the Papyrus of Nekht, 46 ft. 7 in. by 1 ft.
1½ in.
[Illustration: Wooden palette inscribed with the name of Ȧāḥmes I, B.C.
1600.
[No. 2, Table-case C, Third Egyptian Room.]
Wooden palette of Rāmeri, an official of Thothmes IV, B.C. 1470.
[No. 3, Table-case C, Third Egyptian Room.]]
The =palette=, in Egyptian _mesthȧ_ 𓐝𓊃𓍘𓇋𓆱, usually consisted of a
rectangular piece of wood, from eight to sixteen inches long, and from
two to three broad, at one end of which were sunk a number of oval or
circular hollows to hold ink or paint. Down the middle was cut a groove,
sloping at one end, in which the writing reeds were placed; these were
kept in position by a piece of wood glued across the middle of the
palette, or by a sliding cover, which also served to protect the reeds
from injury. A very good collection of palettes is exhibited in the Third
Egyptian Room, Table-case C. Of special interest are the palettes of
Ba-nefer, of the reign of Pepi II, B.C. 3200 (No. 12,782); the palette
of Ȧāḥmes I, the first king of the XVIIIth dynasty, about B.C. 1600 (No.
12,784); the palette of the scribe Pa-mer-ȧḥau, who lived in the reign of
Ȧmen-ḥetep III, about B.C. 1450 (No. 5513); and the palettes of Ȧmen-mes
(No. 12,778) and a scribe (No. 5514), who lived in the reign of Seti I
and Rameses II respectively. The hollows for the ink, or paint, generally
black and red, are usually two in number, but some palettes have a dozen.
The inscriptions on palettes usually contain prayers to the great gods
of the Other World for sepulchral offerings; but sometimes they are
dedications to the god Teḥuti, or Thoth 𓅝𓏏𓏭𓀭, to whom the invention of
the art of writing is attributed. The =writing reed=, in Egyptian _qesh_
𓈎𓈚𓌟𓆭, which served as a pen, was about 10 inches long, and from ⅟₁₆th
to ⅛th of an inch in diameter; the end used for writing was bruised and
not cut. After the XXVIth dynasty, an ordinary reed, similar to that used
in the East at the present day, was employed, and the end was cut like
a quill, or steel pen. The ordinary palette will hold about ten writing
reeds easily. The =ink= was made of mineral or vegetable substances mixed
with gum and water. The earths, or ochres, or preparations of copper,
were rubbed down on slabs with little mullers, several of which may be
seen in the Third Egyptian Room, Table-case C. The =ink-pot= was called
_pes_ 𓊪𓊃𓎺, and was usually made of faïence or porcelain. The hieroglyph
𓏟 represents the palette, an ink pot, and a reed, united by a cord; the
whole stands for “scribe” and “writing.”
[Illustration: Slab of limestone inscribed with a draft of a deed. Dated
in the reign of Ḥeru-em-ḥeb, about B.C. 1400.
[No. 22, Table-case C, Third Egyptian Room.]]
Besides papyrus, scribes frequently used =slices of white limestone= of
a fine texture, or boards plastered with lime, for writing purposes.
On these they wrote drafts of literary compositions, hymns, school
exercises, and sketches in outline of the figures of kings, gods, etc.,
made to scale. As examples may be mentioned No. 22, inscribed with the
draft of a legal document which was drawn up in connection with a robbery
of weapons from the Royal Arsenal by the Chief of the Treasury, about
B.C. 1100, and No. 41, inscribed in the hieratic character with a draft
of a part of a famous work called the “Instructions of Ȧmen-em-ḥāt I,”
king of Egypt, about B.C. 2500 (Third Egyptian Room, Table-case C). In
the Ptolemaïc Period pieces of broken earthenware vessels, or potsherds,
commonly known as =ostraka=, were much used for writing purposes. The
inscriptions on these are chiefly of a business character, receipts or
acquittances, etc.; but certain of them contain extracts from literary
works, _e.g._, a school exercise consisting of lines 105-117 and 128-139
of the _Phoenissae_ of Euripides (No. 88, Third Egyptian Room, Table-case
C). After the introduction of Christianity into Egypt, the Copts, or
Christian Egyptians, imitated their pagan ancestors, and wrote letters,
lists of objects, prayers, extracts from the Scriptures, etc., on slices
of white limestone. A fine collection of such =Coptic inscriptions= is
exhibited in the Fourth Egyptian Room, Table-case M; and of special
interest are: No. 3. Liturgical fragment. No. 5. An undertaking by
Abraham to take charge of a camel. No. 8. Religious exercise, Coptic
and Greek hymns. No. 17. Extract from Psalm xcviii, “Sing unto the Lord
a new Song,” etc. No. 19. Part of the Alexandrian Canon of the Mass,
written in corrupt Greek by Apa Eiḥannes. No. 20. Fragment containing
part of a Greek hymn and a letter in Coptic, conveying the salutations of
Dioskoros to his brother Ounaref and his mother Tnouba. No. 26. Letter
from the priest Victor and Matthaios, to Germanos and Isak (Isaac),
authorizing them to sow their share of a field, and specifying the rent.
No. 28. Document referring to the sale of a camel. It is dated on the
second of the month Pashans, and witnessed by three persons:—Dioskle
and Ouanafre[11] of Pallas, and Gergorios of Remmosh. No. 41. Part of
a letter requesting some monks to bless the writers, and to send holy
water to them that they might sprinkle their sick beasts with it. No.
53. List of measurements of land, in which Greek arithmetical signs,
etc., are employed. No. 57. Receipt for a ḥolokotinos (solidus) paid as
tax or rent by Zaêl for the “camels’ field” for the ninth year. No. 60.
School exercise in Greek and Coptic grammar; on the obverse is a portion
of a letter addressed to the authorities of a monastery. No. 61. Reading
exercise. No. 62. Fragment of a school exercise, with rough drawings
of animals. No. 65. Acquittance of Mizael Konstantinos for the first
instalment of taxes for the year, signed by Severus. No. 66. Writing
exercise for the formation of letters. The Copts sometimes covered the
outside of an unbroken jar with lists, etc., _e.g._, the amphora, No.
166F, Fourth Egyptian Room, Wall-case No. 163. On this are written six
lists of names of men, with those of their fathers and mothers, and it
is probable that the inscriptions were written not later than the eighth
century.
CHAPTER III.
EGYPTIAN LITERATURE, SACRED AND PROFANE.
=Egyptian Literature.=—The literature of Ancient Egypt, written in
the hieroglyphic, hieratic, and demotic characters, is large, and the
contents of the principal divisions of it may be thus summarized:—
=Religious literature=: first and foremost is the great compilation
of texts, partly magical and partly religious, to which was given the
name “Per-em-hru,” _i.e._, the “Book of Coming Forth by Day,” or, as it
is now generally called, the =Book of the Dead=. This work is extant
in three great Recensions, viz., the Heliopolitan, Theban, and Saïte.
The =Heliopolitan Recension= consists of a series of formulas of a
semi-magical character, written in hieroglyphics, which were collected
by the priests of Ȧn, or Heliopolis, about B.C. 3300. A large number of
these formulas were in existence long before this period. The oldest
copies of texts of this Recension are found in the Pyramids of kings
Unȧs, Tetȧ, Pepi I, Meḥti-em-sa-f, and Pepi II at Ṣaḳḳârah, but series
of the formulas from it were copied on coffins and sarcophagi down to
about B.C. 200. Among such is the =coffin of Āmamu= in the British Museum
(First Egyptian Room, No. 6654). On this magnificent coffin are written
some hundreds of lines of text in black ink, and a list of canonical
offerings, according to the Liturgy of Funerary Offerings, is appended.
The coffin itself was intended to represent the chamber of a _maṣṭaba_
tomb, and on the inside are painted pictures of doors and panels, similar
to those which are found in the tombs about B.C. 3500. It is one of the
finest of its class, and it was probably made before the XIth dynasty
(B.C. 2600). In connection with this must be mentioned the portion of a
=wooden coffin of Menthuḥetep=, a king of the XIth dynasty, on which is
inscribed a version of a part of the XVIIth Chapter of the Book of the
Dead (Second Egyptian Room, Wall-cases 86-88).
The =Theban Recension= was generally written upon papyri in
hieroglyphics, and was divided into sections, or chapters, each of which
had its distinct title, but no definite place in the series. It was much
used during the XVIIIth, XIXth, and XXth dynasties. In the first half of
the XVIIIth dynasty the custom grew up of adding vignettes to certain
chapters of this Recension, and before another century had passed so
many coloured illustrations were added to the papyri that frequently
chapters had to be abbreviated, and the scribes were obliged to omit
some of them altogether. This Recension contained about 180 chapters,
but no extant papyrus contains them all. The chapters represent the
theological opinions of the colleges of On (Memphis), Herakleopolis,
Abydos, and Thebes, and are of the first importance for the study of the
Egyptian Religion. In the Rubric to the LXIVth Chapter are mentioned two
traditions which are very valuable for the history of the Recension.
In the one it is stated that the chapter was “found” in the reign of
Semti, a king of the Ist dynasty, and in the other that it was “found”
in the reign of Menkaurā (Mycerinus), a king of the IVth dynasty, by
Ḥeru-ṭāṭā-f, a prince, the son of King Khufu, or Cheops. Thus it is
certain that in the XVIIIth dynasty it was believed that the chapter was
in existence in the earliest dynasties. Now we find from the Papyrus
of Nu that there were two forms of this chapter extant, and that one
of these was twice as long as the other. The longer one is entitled
“Chapter of Coming Forth by Day,” and the shorter, “Chapter of Knowing
the ‘Chapters of Coming Forth by Day’ in a Single Chapter.” The rubric to
the latter attributes the chapter to the Ist dynasty, and thus it seems
that even at this remote period the “Chapters of Coming Forth by Day”
were widely known, and that the priests found it necessary to produce for
general use a chapter which contained the essence of them all.
The British Museum possesses the finest collection in the world of papyri
containing the Theban Recension, and of these may be specially mentioned:
The =Papyrus of Nebseni=,[12] with vignettes in black outline (No.
9900); the =Papyrus of Ani=, a magnificently coloured papyrus containing
texts and vignettes not found elsewhere[13] (No. 10,470); the =Papyrus
of Nu=, with coloured vignettes, rubrics, etc., containing a good text
throughout, and a large number of chapters not found elsewhere[14] (No.
10,477); the =Papyrus of Hu-nefer=, a scribe who flourished in the reign
of Seti I, with a fine series of brilliantly painted vignettes[14] (No.
9901); and the =Papyrus of Mut-ḥetep=, most valuable because it contains
correct copies of early texts (No. 10,010).
[Illustration: Vignette and text of the Theban Book of the Dead from the
Papyrus of Ani.
XVIIIth dynasty.
[Brit. Mus., No. 10,470.]]
[Illustration: Vignette and text of the Theban Book of the Dead from the
Papyrus of Nu.
XVIIIth dynasty.
[Brit. Mus., No. 10,477.]]
[Illustration: PLATE I.
Ḥer-Ḥeru, the first priest-king, and Queen Netchemet standing in the Hall
of Osiris and praying to the god whilst the heart of the Queen is being
weighed in the Balance.
XXIst dynasty, about B.C. 1050.
[Southern Egyptian Gallery, No. 758.]
Presented by His Majesty the King, 1903.]
[Illustration: Vignette and Chapter of the Book of the Dead written in
hieratic for Ḥeru-em-ḥeb.
XXVIth dynasty, or later.
[Brit. Mus., No. 10,257.]]
Out of the Theban Recension grew =another Recension=, to which no special
name has been given. It was written on papyrus both in hieroglyphics and
hieratic, and its Chapters have no fixed order. It came into existence in
the XXth dynasty, probably under the growing influence of the priests of
Ȧmen. Fine examples of the papyri of this Recension are the =Papyrus of
Queen Netchemet= (see =Plate I=), the wife of Ḥer-Ḥeru, the first high
priest-king of the XXIst dynasty (exhibited in the Southern Egyptian
Gallery), and the =Papyrus of Ȧnhai=, a priestess of Ȧmen.[15] In the
latter an entirely new style of decoration is employed, and gold is used
in decorating the disk of Rā Harmachis for the first time.
Of the history of the Book of the Dead between B.C. 1000 and 650 little
is known. Under the influence of the great renaissance, which took place
in the XXVIth dynasty, another Recension came into use, called the
=Saïte=. In this the chapters had a fixed order, many new ones being
inserted. The text was written both in hieroglyphics and hieratic, and
it was decorated with a series of vignettes, in which all the figures
were drawn in black outline. The appearance of papyri of this Recension
is monotonous and dull, and both the drawings and the hieroglyphics
are stiff and spiritless. Good examples of papyri of this Recension are
the =Papyrus of Ḥeru-em-ḥeb=, written in hieratic (No. 10,257), and the
Papyrus of Ḥeru, written in hieroglyphics (No. 10,479). The vignettes
usually occupy small spaces at the top of the columns of text. The
Recension in use in the Ptolemaïc Period was the Saïte, but before the
Roman Period it was customary to write other and newer funerary works on
papyri, and little by little the Book of the Dead, as a whole, became
obsolete. It seems as if an attempt was made to extract from the old work
the texts which were regarded as absolutely necessary for salvation, and
as if the older mythology was unknown to the Egyptians of the period.
It is quite certain that many of the scribes copied texts without
understanding them, and that the meanings of many vignettes were lost.
About the beginning of the Ptolemaïc Period the following works came into
general use: =1.= The SHĀIT EN SENSEN 𓈚𓂝𓇌𓏏𓏤𓍼𓈖𓊃𓈖𓊃𓈖𓊡𓏪, or =Book of
Breathings=. Like the great Book of the Dead, this work was declared to
have been written by Thoth, the scribe of the gods, the “Heart of Rā.”
It contains a number of prayers for offerings, a series of declarations
that the deceased has not committed certain specified sins, a statement
that he has neither sin nor evil in him, and a demand that his soul be
admitted into the heaven because “he gave food to the hungry, water to
the thirsty, clothes to the naked, and offerings to the Gods, and to the
KHU (beatified spirits).” A fine copy of this work is that written in the
hieratic character for Kerasher on a papyrus in the British Museum (No.
9995). In the first part are copies of vignettes from the Book of the
Dead, but the details are modified to suit the religious beliefs of the
period. Thus Thoth and not Horus introduces the deceased to Osiris, and
Anubis and Hathor lead him into the Judgment Hall instead of Maāt.
=2.= The =Lamentations of Isis and Nephthys=, a work in which these
goddesses lamented the sufferings and death of Osiris, and proclaimed his
resurrection, and glorified him in the heavens. It was recited by two
priestesses, who were ceremonially pure, on the 25th day of the month
Choiak (December), and the words in the book were believed to be those
which Isis and Nephthys actually said at their first mourning for their
brother Osiris. Copies of them were written on papyrus and buried with
the dead to ensure their resurrection and future happiness and glory.
=3.= The =Festival Songs of the Two Tcherti=, _i.e._, of the Two Weepers,
Isis and Nephthys, a work similar in character to the preceding. It was
recited on five days of the month Choiak (December), during which the
great annual festival of Osiris was celebrated. The priestesses who sang
the verses of the work wore lambs’-wool crowns on their heads, carried
tambourines which they beat from time to time, and bore on their arms
bandlets with the names of Isis and Nephthys written upon them. The
recital of the work was preceded by an address by the _Kher ḥeb_, or
“Lector,” and then the two priestesses sang the rhythmic sections of the
compositions alternately.
[Illustration: A copy of a Book of the Dead entitled “May my name
flourish!”
Roman Period.
[Brit. Mus., No. 10,304.]]
=4.= The =Litanies of Seker=, a short composition of about 100 lines,
containing two series of addresses to Seker, the god of the Other World.
Fine copies of this and the preceding work are given in the Rhind Papyrus
(No. 10,188).
=5.= The =Book of traversing Eternity= (_Shāti en sebebi ḥeḥ_
𓏛𓏏𓏭𓏤𓍼𓅂𓈖𓊃𓃀𓃀𓏭𓂻𓎛𓎛𓇳), a work in which the happiness of the blessed dead
is described, and an account given of a journey through the Other World
by the deceased, who visits the shrines of the gods, and takes part in
the services of praise which are performed there by the spirits and
souls, of the righteous, and enjoys the offerings which are made to them
by the faithful on earth (Papyrus No. 29, at Vienna).
=6.= The Book of =May my Name Flourish=,[16] a work which was very
popular in the Roman Period. It is, in reality, a development of a long
prayer which is found in the Pyramid Texts of the VIth dynasty. Its
object was to make the name of the deceased permanent in heaven and on
earth, for it was a common belief, from the earliest to the latest times,
that the man whose name was blotted out had no portion or existence in
the other world. A nameless soul possessed no identity, and could not
be introduced to Rā and the company of the gods. The British Museum
possesses several copies of this work, written generally on narrow strips
of papyrus, in a kind of hieratic, containing many demotic characters.
(Nos. 10,108, 10,111, 10,112, 10,109, etc.)
=7.= Another work which obtained some popularity in the late period is
the so-called =Ritual of Embalmment=. In this composition is given a
large number of the formulas that were recited over the unguents, spices,
and swathings during the process of embalming the body.
[Illustration: The ceremonies of “Opening the Mouth.”]
=8.= In all periods the burial of the dead was accompanied by the
presentation of series of offerings. Up to the end of the Vth dynasty
a comparatively small number of names of offerings was inscribed on
the walls of the tombs, and in the presentation of such offerings
consisted the ceremony of =Opening the Mouth= of the dead. Under the
VIth dynasty a new and enlarged list of offerings was drawn up, and a
series of formulas was added to it for recital by the priest as object
after object was presented to the mummy. In many of these formulas there
were plays of words upon the names of the offerings, each of which
was symbolical of some divine being, or object, or act. Several new
ceremonies connected with the purification and censing of the mummy, and
the use of instruments in “opening the mouth and eyes” of the mummy were
introduced at this time. To this List of Offerings, with its rubrics, the
name of =Liturgy of Funerary Offerings= may be given. Under the XVIIIth
dynasty a further development of the List of Offerings took place, and
new ceremonies were added, and the work was henceforth known as the =Book
of Opening the Mouth=. The visitor will see on the west wall of the
Second Egyptian Room a large coloured drawing in which the performance
of ceremonies connected with the opening of the mouth is represented.
One priest is supposed to be touching the mouth of the mummy with the
=Ur-ḥeka= instrument, and is holding other instruments; the other priest
is presenting vases of water. Behind them is the KHER ḤEB, or Lector, who
is pouring out water from a libation vase and burning incense. The object
of the Book of Opening the Mouth was: 1. To give the deceased a new
body in the Other World, and to make him to be divine. 2. To establish
communion between the living and the dead. In later days a statue of the
deceased took the place of his mummy in the ceremonies, and then the
chief object of the ceremonies, formulas, and offerings, was to provide a
dwelling place for the _Ka_ or “double” of the deceased, and to make his
soul to take up its abode in the statue. The Book of Opening the Mouth
was in general use from the Vth dynasty to the first or second century of
our era, that is, for a period of 4,000 years, and copies of it made in
the Roman Period are almost identical with those found in the Pyramids of
Ṣaḳḳârah of the VIth dynasty.
=9.= An important section of the Religious Literature of Egypt is formed
by works which were intended to be used as =Guides to the Other World=.
The oldest of these is a work in which pictures are given of portions
of Restau, in the kingdom of the god Seker, and of several parts of
the Sekhet-ḥetep, or Elysian Fields, and their positions in respect
of the celestial Nile are shown. The descriptions of these places and
the formulas which were to be recited by the deceased are written in
hieratic, and these were to be learned by men on earth so that their
souls might recognize the various regions as they came to them, and
repeat the sacred words at the right moments. This “Guide” may be called
the =Book of enabling a man to travel over the ways of the Other World=,
but recent writers have named it the =Book of the Two Ways=. The finest
and fullest copies of the work, with illustrations in full colour, are
found in the coffins of Ḳua-ṭep and Sen, or Senȧ, the “chief physician,”
in the British Museum (Nos. 30,841, 30,839).
A second work of this kind is the =Book of what is in the Ṭuat=, or Other
World, or _Shāt ȧm Ṭuat_, 𓏛𓏤𓏏𓍼𓇋𓏶𓅓𓇼𓏏𓉐. In this the Other World is
divided into Twelve Sections corresponding to the Twelve Hours of the
Night, and pictures are given of the various gods, demons, and fiends who
were supposed to obstruct the way of those who were passing from this
world to the kingdoms of Osiris and Rā. The texts contain the speeches
of the Sun-god of night, called =Ȧfu-Rā=, and describe the conditions of
the beatified, or the damned, in each section, and give the names of the
principal gods. The work is very lengthy, and complete copies of it must
have been cumbrous, as well as costly. The priests therefore prepared a
=Summary of the Book of Ȧm-Ṭuat=, which was supposed to contain all that
was absolutely essential for the soul to know that had to travel from
this world to the next. The most complete copy of the larger work is
given on the walls of the chambers in the tomb of Seti I, at Thebes, but
one half of it is cut on the outside of the magnificent sarcophagus of
Nekht-Ḥeru-ḥebt, king of Egypt about B.C. 378 (Southern Egyptian Gallery,
No. 923). (See =Plate II=.) Of portions of the “Summary” there are
several copies in the British Museum, both with and without illustrations
(Nos. 9975, 9979, 9981-9985, etc.). The pictures of this work were
believed to be endowed with the same magical powers as the texts.
In the =Book of Gates=, a somewhat similar work, the road from earth to
heaven is marked by a series of Gates through which the deceased hoped
to pass. The texts, which are fully illustrated, describe the progress
of the Boat of the Sun-god to the Kingdom of Osiris, the Judgment in the
Hall of Osiris, the life of the beatified in the Elysian Fields, and the
punishment of the wicked and of the foes of the Sun-god by dismemberment
and burning. Following these comes a set of magical texts and pictures
which describe and illustrate the ceremonies which were performed daily
to make the sun to rise. They show that the Egyptians used to make a
model of the sun, and place it in a boat, and then bring to it arrows
to represent rays, and disks to represent the hours; fire was next
kindled with the fire-stick and applied to the model, and appropriate
formulas having been recited, the body of the sun was believed to be
reconstituted.
[Illustration: PLATE II.
Scenes and texts from the Sixth Section of the Book of What is in the
Other World. From the sarcophagus of King Nekht-Ḥeru-ḥebt, B.C. 378.
[Southern Egyptian Gallery, Bay 25, No. 923.]]
=10.= As an example of Rituals may be mentioned the famous =Daily Ritual
of the Divine Cult=, the texts of which were inscribed upon papyrus and
cut on the walls of temples, _e.g._, Abydos. From this we learn that the
king was supposed to perform daily a series of elaborate ceremonies in
connection with the statue of Ȧmen, and to present to it unguents, wine,
incense, articles of sacred apparel, etc. By means of these he entered
into communion with the god, who bestowed upon him his vital power,
strength, and spiritual qualities.
=11.= =Hymnology= is well represented by the hymns to the gods Rā,
Rā-Harmachis, Temu and Osiris, which are found in the great Papyrus of
Ani in the British Museum (No. 10,470), and by the fine =Hymn to the
Nile=, of which two copies are preserved in the British Museum (Sallier
II, No. 10,182, and Anastasi VII, No. 10,222). Of somewhat different
character, though equally interesting, are the Hymns to Ȧmen contained in
the Anastasi Papyrus II (No. 10,243). Under this head may be grouped the
=Litany of Osiris= in the Papyrus of Ani, and the =Addresses of Horus= to
his father Osiris in the Papyrus of Nebseni (No. 9900).
=12.= =Service books= are represented by the =Book of Overthrowing
Āpepi=, a work which contains a series of spells and incantations that
were recited in the great temple of Ȧmen-Rā at Karnak (Thebes) on certain
days of the month. These were directed against Āpepi, the great foe of
the Sun-god, and enemy of all goodness and truth, who took the form of a
monster serpent, and waged war against all the gods daily. The rubrics
contained directions for ceremonies, in which wax-figures were burned
in the temple fires, whilst the priests recited the spells in the Book.
There is a complete copy of the work in the British Museum (No. 10,188),
which also contains a list of the accursed names of Āpepi, and the text
of the hymn of praise which was sung when the arch-fiend was overthrown.
=13.= =Exegesis= is represented by two valuable copies of a work which
forms the XVIIth Chapter of the Book of the Dead in the Papyrus of
Ani (No. 10,470), and the Papyrus of Nebseni (No. 9900). In it a text
treating of the origin of the gods and their relation to Rā, and of the
doctrine of the union of Rā and Osiris, etc., is dissected, and each
sentence of the work is followed by a statement of the opinions of the
various great religious Colleges of Egypt.
=14.= An example of a rare class of work is found cut on a black stone
slab in the Southern Egyptian Gallery (No. 797). The text states that it
was copied from an inscribed board which had become worm-eaten in the
reign of Shabaka, king of Egypt, about B.C. 700. From what is legible
on the slab we are justified in assuming that the work contained a sort
of philosophical statement of the religious beliefs of a priest who was
trying to systematize certain of the old traditions of the country, and
to evolve a system of belief which should be consonant with the special
traditions current at Memphis at that time concerning the god Ptaḥ.
=15.= Another most important section of religious literature consists of
the funerary inscriptions cut on =sepulchral tablets=, or grave-stones,
which form so large a portion of the Egyptian collections of the British
Museum. In the vestibule and galleries is exhibited a splendid series
of such monuments, the oldest dating from the IVth dynasty, about B.C.
3800, and the most recent from the first century A.D.; thus the series
represents a period of about four thousand years. The value of these
monuments is very great, for they not only give the various forms of the
prayer to the gods for sepulchral offerings in the different periods
of Egyptian history, but they afford a great deal of information about
the attributes of the gods, and they illustrate the growth and decay of
many forms of belief, details of ritual, etc. On =Plates III-VIII= are
reproduced good typical examples of sepulchral tablets of the IVth, XIth,
XIIth, XVIIIth, XIXth, and XXXth dynasties.
The number of the religious works of the Egyptians was very large, and
in each great temple a small chamber was set apart as a library; here
the papyrus rolls, or books, were kept in boxes, and, in some cases, the
names of the works were inscribed on the walls of the chamber. The number
of the rolls in a temple library seems to have been comparatively small,
for the list of books which is cut on the wall of the “House of Books,”
of the temple of Edfû, only contains the names of thirty-seven works.
=Profane Literature.=—Among works of a didactic and moral character may
be mentioned the =Precepts of Kaqemna= and the =Precepts of Ptaḥ-ḥetep=.
The first of these contains a short series of admonitions as to general
behaviour, which were written towards the end of the IIIrd dynasty, about
B.C. 3900, and the second a group of aphorisms of high moral worth, by
a high official who flourished in the reign of Ȧssȧ, a king of the Vth
dynasty, about B.C. 3360. A late copy of the latter work is preserved in
the British Museum. Other works of this class are The =Instructions of
Ȧmen-em-ḥāt I=, a complete copy of which is given in the First Sallier
Papyrus (No. 10,185), and the =Maxims of Ani=, preserved in the Egyptian
Museum in Cairo. The latter work inculcates the highest standard of
practical morality, and contains a lofty idea of the duty of the Egyptian
to his god and his neighbour; many of the counsels embody shrewd common
sense and experience, and are similar to portions of the Book of Proverbs
and the Book of Ecclesiasticus. The language in which the maxims are
written is sometimes very difficult, for many of them are in the form of
short, pithy proverbs.
[Illustration: PLATE III.
False door from the tomb of Sheshȧ, a royal scribe, who flourished in the
reign of Khufu (Cheops), about B.C. 3700.
[Vestibule, North Wall, No. 18.]]
[Illustration: PLATE IV.
Sepulchral tablet of Thethȧ, an official who flourished in the reign of
Ȧntef-uaḥ-ānkh, a king of the XIth dynasty, B.C. 2600.
[Northern Egyptian Gallery, Bay 4, No. 100.]]
[Illustration: PLATE V.
Painted sepulchral tablet of Sebek-ḥetep, scribe of the wine-cellar.
XVIIIth dynasty.
[Northern Egyptian Gallery, Bay 12, No. 513.]]
[Illustration: PLATE VI.
Sepulchral tablet of Pai-neḥsi, the overseer of the storehouse of gold
from the Sûdân.
XIIth dynasty.
[Southern Egyptian Gallery, Bay 7, No. 299.]]
[Illustration: PLATE VII.
Sepulchral tablet of Bak-en-Ȧmen, a scribe of the table and wine-cellar.
XIXth or XXth dynasty.
[Southern Egyptian Gallery, Bay 22, No. 751.]]
[Illustration: PLATE VIII.
Sepulchral tablet of Nes-Ḥeru, a priest.
About B.C. 350.
[Southern Egyptian Gallery, Bay 26, No. 941.]]
A work of a somewhat similar character is the very interesting set of
“=Instructions=” given by a high official to his son Pepi, which we know
from the Second Sallier Papyrus and the Seventh Anastasi Papyrus in
the British Museum (Nos. 10,182, 10,222). The writer entreats his son
to adopt the profession of letters, which he points out leads to rich
emoluments, ease, comfort, and dignity, and he begs him to “love letters
as thy mother.” He then compares the toil and unpleasantness of the life
of the blacksmith, carpenter, stone-cutter, barber, waterman, fisherman,
farm-labourer, gardener, fish-seller, sandal-maker, laundryman, etc., and
urges him to devote himself to his books. This work is commonly known as
the =Hymn in Praise of Learning=; it was very popular in schools under
the XIXth and following dynasties, and portions of it, written on slices
of limestone, were set as “copies” for school-boys.
The Egyptians greatly loved works of =Fiction= and =Travel=, and the
copies of such which have come down to us show that they were full
of marvellous incidents, and that they greatly resembled some of the
sections of the “Arabian Nights” of a later period. The =Tale of the
Two Brothers=, in the British Museum (No. 10,183), is one of the best
examples of Egyptian Fiction. In the first part of the story we have a
faithful description of the life of the peasant farmer in Egypt. Ȧnpu,
the elder brother, lives with his wife on a small farm, and Batau, his
younger brother, acts as his companion, steward, and servant. The wife
of Ȧnpu conceived great affection for Batau. One day, when he returned
to the farm on an errand, she told him of her love; Batau rejected her
overtures, left the house, and went about his ordinary work in the
fields. When Ȧnpu returned to his house in the evening, he found the
rooms in darkness, and, going inside, he discovered his wife lying sick
upon the floor and in a state which suggested she had been ill-treated
and beaten. In answer to his questions she told him that Batau had
attacked her and beaten her, and that she was sure when he next came
back to the farm he would kill her; she did not tell him that she had
made herself sick by eating rancid grease, and Ȧnpu did not suspect her
untruth. Ȧnpu then took a large grass-cutting knife and went out to kill
his brother when he arrived. As Batau came to the byre to lead his cattle
into their stalls, the oxen told him that his brother was waiting behind
the door to kill him; looking under the door he saw Ȧnpu’s feet, and
then, setting his load on the ground, he fled from the barn as fast as
he could, pursued by his brother. Whilst they were running, the Sun-god
Shu looked on, and, seeing that Ȧnpu was gaining on Batau, caused a
river full of crocodiles to spring up between them, so that Ȧnpu was on
one bank and Batau was on the other. When Batau had explained the truth
of the matter to Ȧnpu, he departed to the Valley of the Acacia, and the
elder brother went home, murdered his wife, and threw her body to the
dogs.
The second part of the story is not so easy to follow. Batau went to
the Acacia Valley, and placed his heart on the top of the flower of a
tree, and passed some years in hunting the wild animals of the desert.
Whilst there the gods made for him a wife, who was, however, subsequently
carried off to be the queen of Egypt. By her orders the tree on which was
the heart of Batau was cut down, and the heart fell to the ground, where,
after some time, it was found by Ȧnpu, who went in search of it. Batau
having recovered his life, took the form of a bull, and, after a series
of marvellous transformations, became the father of a king of Egypt. The
papyrus containing this story was written by the scribe Anna, and it was
one of the rolls in the library of Seti II Menephthah.
The =Story of the Doomed Prince= is another good example of Egyptian
Fiction, though the unique copy in the British Museum (Harris, No. 500)
is incomplete at the end. In the story of the =Possessed Princess of
Bekhten= we have a short but interesting account of the driving out of
a violent devil from the body of one of the sisters-in-law of the king
of Egypt, by means of a statue of the god Khensu. The stele containing
the text is in Paris. =Travel= is well represented by the =Adventures
of Sa-Nehat= (papyrus at Berlin); the =Story of a Shipwrecked Sailor=,
who was cast up on an enchanted island, and conversed with a serpent of
fabulous length (papyrus at St. Petersburg); the =Journey of Unu-Ȧmen=,
who went to Bêrût to buy cedar wood for the Boat of Ȧmen-Rā at Thebes,
but was robbed on his way there, and shipwrecked on his way back,
being cast up on the Island of Cyprus (papyrus at St. Petersburg);
and the =Travels of an Egyptian=, in a papyrus in the British Museum
(No. 10,247). In the last work we have an account of the journey of an
official who travelled in Syria and Palestine, and of the misfortunes
which overtook him. He was robbed, his servants ran away, the pole of his
chariot was smashed, and he suffered from heat by day, cold by night, and
want of food and drink. For stealing fruit from a garden near the road he
was haled before the local magistrate and fined heavily.
=Stories of Magicians= were as popular as books of travel, and of these
may be mentioned the group contained in the Westcar Papyrus in Berlin.
In one of them we are told of a famous magician who made a figure of a
crocodile in wax which, when thrown into the river, became a huge, living
crocodile, and devoured the man who had done the magician an injury.
In another the magician cut off a goose’s head, and placed it in one
part of the room, and the body of the bird in another; he then recited
certain words of power, and the head and body approached each other
little by little, and at length the head sprang up on the neck, and the
goose cackled. In another story we are told how one of the maidens who
was rowing the royal barge on a lake dropped one of her ornaments into
the water. A magician having been brought, stood up and recited words of
power, whereupon the half of the lake on which was the boat transferred
itself above the other half, and remained there whilst the maiden stepped
out of the boat and picked up her ornament which was seen lying on a
shard. This done, the magician repeated words of power, and the water,
which had been standing up like a wall, flowed back into its place.
Under the head of =Science= must be included the inscriptions which
deal with =Astronomy=, and contain lists of the Planets, the thirty-six
Dekans, the Signs of the Zodiac (see the coffin of Ḥeru-netch-tef-f,
First Egyptian Room, No. 6678), etc.; =Calendars= (Papyrus No. 10,474);
=Geometry= illustrated by the famous Rhind Papyrus in the British Museum
(No. 10,057); =Geography= and =Cartography=, illustrated by the papyrus
at Cairo in which the religious divisions of the Fayyûm are described,
and by the famous map of the district of the gold mines preserved in the
Museum of Turin; =Chronology=, as represented by the =Turin Papyrus=,
which, when complete, contained the names of about 300 kings of Egypt,
and the lengths of their reigns in years and months, or days. In
connection with this branch may be mentioned the =King List= of Thunurei,
found at Ṣaḳḳârah, and the King Lists of Seti I and Rameses II found at
Abydos (=Tablets of Abydos, 1 and 2=); the remains of the List made
for Rameses II are preserved in the British Museum (Southern Egyptian
Gallery, Bay 6, No. 592).
[Illustration: Marble Sundial.
Ptolemaïc Period.
[Southern Egyptian Gallery, Bay 29, No. 976.]]
A number of valuable books dealing with =Medicine= have come down to us,
and of these one of the most interesting is the papyrus in the British
Museum, No. 10,059. It contains copies of a number of prescriptions which
date from the reign of Khufu, the builder of the Great Pyramid, about
B.C. 3730, and several of the time of Ȧmen-ḥetep III (B.C. 1450). The
largest work on medicine is contained in the Ebers Papyrus at Leipzig,
and there are medical papyri in the Museums of Paris, Leyden, Berlin,
and California (Hearst Medical Papyrus). In all these we find that magic
was considered to be as efficacious as drugs; many of the prescriptions
are to all intents and purposes magical formulas, and several suggest
charlatanism. Oil, honey, and tinctures or decoctions of simple herbs
were largely used, and the long list of names of plants, herbs, seeds,
etc., in the Ebers Papyrus proves that, though the Egyptians had little
idea of scientific =Botany=, they had a very wide knowledge of the
properties of plants, etc. =Anatomy= was studied in a practical manner,
especially for the purposes of embalming and bone-setting, but as no
treatises on the subject have come down to us, it is impossible to say
whether the Egyptians deserved the great reputations which they enjoyed
as physicians. It is tolerably certain that they made no experiments
in dissection, for the body was sacred to Osiris, and might not be
dismembered, at all events in the later times. The commonest diseases
among the Egyptians seem to have been ophthalmia, fever, maladies of the
stomach, ulcers, “Nile boils,” epilepsy and anaemia.
=Biographical inscriptions= form a very important section of the
Literature, and they throw much light, not only on the social condition
of the people, but also on the history of the country. Thus, the
inscription of the =official Ptaḥ-shepses=, who was born under the IVth
dynasty, besides enumerating the various high offices which he held,
proves that he lived through the reigns of eight or nine kings, and
thus fixes the order of the succession of several of them (see Egyptian
Vestibule, No. 32). The =official Ȧntef= lived under three kings, whose
names he gives, and thus fixes the order of their succession (Bay 4, No.
99). (=Plate XXII.=) The stele[17] of =Erṭā-Ȧntef-Ṭāṭāu= says that the
deceased was “Governor of the South” in the reign of Usertsen I, and thus
we know that an Egyptian viceroy governed the Sûdân as early as B.C.
2433 (Bay 4, No. 196). The =stele of Sa-Menthu= describes how he went to
the Sûdân to bring back gold for the king of Egypt, and tells us that he
made men, women, and children to work in digging out the quartz, and in
crushing the ore and washing the gold from it (Bay 6, No. 145). From the
biographies of the great Egyptian officials much of the history of Egypt
can be pieced together.
The Egyptians did not write =history= in the modern sense of the word.
Some of the kings, _e.g._, Thothmes III, inscribed =annals= on the walls
of their temples, and many others set up inscriptions to commemorate
great events. Thus Usertsen III set up at Semnah in the sixteenth year
of his reign a stele to mark the frontier of Egypt on the south, and
to proclaim his conquest of the Northern Sûdân. Ȧmen-ḥetep III, B.C.
1450, set up a stele at Semnah to record his conquest of the country of
Abhat, and the slaughter of a number of Blacks (Bay 6, No. 411). Rameses
II caused copies of his account of his fight against the Kheta, or
Hittites, to be cut on stelae, and set up in various places throughout
the kingdom, _e.g._, at Amârah and Abû-Simbel. Some of the Nubian kings
also caused good detailed accounts of their wars to be cut upon stelae,
which were set up in their capital, and in many cases these are the sole
authorities for the history of the period. Thus Piānkhi (B.C. 740) gives
a really fine account of his invasion and conquest of Egypt, even taking
the trouble to describe the military operations connected with the siege
of great cities like Memphis, his love for horses, and his devotions at
Thebes and Heliopolis. Ḥeru-sa-ȧtef, another Nubian king, gives on his
stele a careful summary of his expeditions to various parts of the Sûdân,
and lists of the tribute which he received. Casts of both monuments are
exhibited in the Southern Egyptian Gallery, Bay 18, No. 815, and Central
Saloon, No. 793. The Stele of Nȧstasen (B.C. 525) at Berlin is another
good example of this class of monument, and the text, which seems to
mention Cambyses, is of great interest. Finally may be mentioned the
stele of the Decree of Ptolemy I (B.C. 325), granting certain properties
to the temple of Buto (see the Cast in Bay 28, No. 950). The finest
general account of the reign of a king is that given by Rameses III (B.C.
1200) in the Harris Papyrus No. 1, in the British Museum (No. 9999); but
even in this more care is devoted to the glorification of the king than
to the facts of history. The inscription of Menephthah (B.C. 1250), which
is cut on the back of a stele of Ȧmen-ḥetep III in the Egyptian Museum
in Cairo, though containing useful historical indications and mentioning
the name of the Israelites 𓇌𓊃𓏮𓂋𓇋𓄿𓂋𓏤𓌙𓀀𓁐𓏪 (line 27), cannot be regarded
as a serious statement of fact, and must be classed with the panegyric
written by the court scribe Penta-urt on the exploits of Rameses II.
The =Historical Romances= of the Egyptians are represented by the
narrative of the =Capture of the town of Joppa= (Harris Papyrus, No.
500), and by the Dispute between Seqenen-Rā, King of Thebes, and Āpepi,
King of Avaris (Sallier Papyrus, I, No. 10,185). =Books of Magic= are
numerous, and of these may be mentioned Papyrus Salt, No. 825, and
Harris Papyrus, No. 10,051. Several =Mythological Legends= are extant,
viz., of the =Resurrection of Osiris= and the birth of Horus (on a
stele in Paris); of the =Creation of the World=, Gods, and Men (British
Museum Papyrus, No. 10,188); of the =Wars of Ḥeru-Beḥuṭet=, or Horus,
the War-god of Edfû (on the temple of Edfû); of the =Destruction of
Mankind= (in the tomb of Seti I); of how =Unȧs killed and ate the
Gods= (in the Pyramid of Unȧs); of the =Poisoning of Rā= the Sun-god
(papyrus at Turin); of the =Death of Horus= by a scorpion’s sting,
and his resurrection through Thoth (text on the Metternich Stele);
and of the =Wanderings of Isis=, with her son Horus and the Seven
Scorpion-goddesses, in the Delta (text on the Metternich Stele). The
=History of Osiris=, and of his murder by Set, has not yet been found in
Egyptian texts in a complete form, but there are frequent allusions to
this history in the inscriptions of all periods, and it is clear that
we have a tolerably accurate version of it in the narrative written by
Plutarch (_De Iside et Osiride_).
Among the =Legal Documents= in the British Museum may be mentioned
the papyri containing accounts of the prosecution of the robbers who
broke into and plundered the royal tombs under the XXth dynasty (Papyri
Abbott, Nos. 10,221 and 10,052), and the process against a man who
was charged with stealing a quantity of silver (Nos. 10,053, 10,054).
=Songs= and =Poetry= are represented by the =Love Songs= contained in
the Harris Papyrus, No. 500; the =Song of Ȧntuf=, which was sung to
the accompaniment of the harp (Harris Papyrus, No. 500); and the =Song
of the Harper=, written on the wall of a tomb at Thebes, in which the
hearers are enjoined to be happy, to anoint and scent themselves, and to
rejoice with music and song, until the day cometh when they must depart
to the land “which loveth silence.” The mutability of things, and the
fleetingness of the world are also dwelt upon. The works enumerated in
the above paragraphs are written in hieroglyphics and hieratic. The
=literature= written =in demotic= is considerable, and it consists of
books of magic, tales and stories, collections of moral aphorisms, legal
documents, marriage contracts, etc.
CHAPTER IV.
MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. MARRIAGE. POLYGAMY. HONOUR PAID TO THE MOTHER. THE
CHILD AND ITS NAME. TOYS. EDUCATION. DRESS. FOOD. AMUSEMENTS. DWELLING
HOUSES AND FURNITURE. AGRICULTURE AND CATTLE BREEDING. TRADE. HANDICRAFTS.
=Manners and Customs.=—The views of the Egyptians about =marriage=
closely resemble those held by many African tribes, for they married
their sisters and nieces, and sometimes indulged in =polygamy=. It is
probable that the views as to marriage which obtained generally in Egypt
were less rigid than those of Western nations. According to an ancient
legend Osiris married his sister Isis, who became by him the mother of
Horus, and he was also the father of Anubis by his other sister Nephthys.
Generally speaking, the Egyptian was the husband of one wife, who was
the mistress of his house and the mother of his children, whether she
was his sister, or his niece, or a stranger. Kings and noblemen married
several wives, and became fathers of children by many of the women of
their households. The Ptolemies, curiously enough, seeing that they were
Greeks, married their sisters and nieces, like the Egyptians. Marriage
in Egypt was, no doubt, arranged in the way common to the East, _i.e._,
it was practically a business transaction, great care being taken to
provide for the maintenance of the woman in the event of misbehaviour
either on her part or that of her husband. Whether any religious ceremony
was performed at the marriage is unknown. Girls were married before
they were fourteen years of age. The legitimate wife of a man is called
“Nebt pa,” 𓎟𓏏𓉐𓏤, _i.e._, “lady of the house,”[18] and she might of
course, be “his beloved sister”; frequently, however, the latter title
is a euphemism for “mistress,” or “concubine.” To divorce or eject the
“lady of the house” was a very difficult matter, and it was probably the
fear of possible pecuniary complications which caused the Egyptian in so
many cases to marry his sister or the woman whom he called by that name.
Moreover, it was thus easier to keep the property in the husband’s family.
The legal =wife= was one of the freest women in the world. She went about
the house, and outside it, at will, and, unlike the modern Egyptian
women, she wore no =veil=. If she pleased, she held converse with men in
the village or market, and she suffered from none of the restrictions
which are placed upon women in the East in modern times. When the wife
became a =mother= her power and influence were greatly increased, and
the literature of ancient Egypt contains many passages which illustrate
the honour and esteem in which the “mistress of the house” was held by
her children, and on scores of stelae in the Egyptian Galleries the
name of the mother of the deceased is given, whilst that of his father
is not mentioned. The Egyptians, like many African tribes, traced their
descent through their mothers, and the views which they held concerning
the affection due to the wife from her husband, and the love which a son
should give to his mother, are well illustrated by two passages. In the
=Precepts of Ptaḥ-ḥetep= (B.C. 3200): “If thou wouldst be a wise man,
rule thy house and love thy wife wholly and constantly. Feed her and
clothe her, love her tenderly, and fulfil her desires as long as thou
livest, for she is an estate which conferreth great reward upon her lord.
Be not hard to her, for she will be more easily moved by persuasion than
by force. Observe what she wisheth, and that on which her mind runneth;
thereby shalt thou make her to stay in thy house. If thou resistest
her will it is ruin.” In the =Precepts of Khensu-ḥetep= (B.C. 1500) we
read: “When thou art grown up, and art married, and hast a house, never
forget the pains which thou didst cost thy mother, nor the care which she
bestowed upon thee. Never give her cause to complain of thee, lest she
lift up her hands to God in heaven, and He hearken to her cry [and punish
thee].”
The life of the woman in the lower classes was a hard one. She cooked the
food for her husband and children, she wove the flax into linen, attended
to all matters in the house, and usually managed to have a large family.
She was a mother at the age of fifteen, or earlier, and a grandmother
at thirty, by which time her body was bent, her forehead wrinkled, and
her face withered. Among the upper classes the process of physical
deterioration was, of course, slower, but the results were the same.
Soon after a child was born a =name= was given to it, which usually
had reference to some physical characteristic; thus a boy might be
called “Nekht” 𓈖𓆱𓐍𓏏𓂡 “Strong,” and a girl “Nefert” 𓄤𓏏 “Beautiful,”
or “Netchemet” 𓇛𓏏 “Sweet.” Pious folk introduced the name of some god
or goddess into the child’s name, _e.g._, “Rā-ḥetep” 𓂋𓂝𓇳𓏤𓊵𓏏𓊪𓀀 “Rā
is satisfied,” and loyal folk the name of the reigning king, _e.g._,
“Pepi-nekht” 𓊪𓊪𓇌𓈖𓆱𓐍𓏏𓂡 “Pepi the strong one.” Several members
of a family often bore the same name, but in these cases each was
distinguished by some “little name” (_i.e._, pet-name). As a pet-name
may be mentioned “Mȧi-sherȧui,” _i.e._, “Little Cat,” or “Pussy,”
𓏇𓇌𓈚𓂋𓇋𓏲𓏭𓅪𓁐. In well-to-do families a special day was set apart for
naming a child and this =name-day= was usually celebrated with rejoicings.
For the first three years of its life a child was wholly in its mother’s
care, and she carried it about on her back or left shoulder (see the
ivory figure No. 41 in Table-case L in the Third Egyptian Room). For the
next three or four years of its life it went about naked, whether boy
or girl, gentle or simple; indeed a grandson of Khufu, the builder of
the Great Pyramid, went to school unclothed. The heads of children were
clean-shaven, with the exception of a lock of hair on the right side
of the head. Little girls sometimes wore an amulet on their breast or
body in order to avert the “evil eye,” and perhaps a cheap bracelet or
necklace. They played with =dolls=, numerous examples of which have come
down to us (see Standard-case C in the Fourth Egyptian Room). Like all
children, Egyptian children loved =toys= of all kinds. As examples of
these may be mentioned the =cat= with a movable lower jaw, the =elephant=
and his rider, each having movable limbs, the =negro= being pursued by an
animal, the =ape= drawing a chariot, the =cat-headed dwarf=, the =lion=
killing its prey, the toy dog, hippopotamus, etc. The =balls= they played
with were made of porcelain, papyrus, leather stuffed with chopped straw,
etc. (See Standard-case C.)
=Education.=—It is doubtful if the children of peasants and of the
lowest classes went to school, or received any education at all; both
boys and girls were probably sent to herd the geese, to drive the sheep
and goats to pasture or to the canal or river to drink, to look after
the cows, to collect fuel for the fire, etc. It is unlikely that girls
or women generally were taught to read and to write, but little is
known about this matter. The boys of the professional and upper classes
undoubtedly received a certain amount of instruction, for learning was
highly esteemed throughout Egypt; but speaking generally, the learning
of the country was in the hands of the =scribes=. The profession of the
scribe was one of great dignity and importance, and the highest offices
in the land were open to him. The temples and certain offices of the
Government maintained schools in which scribes were trained, and pupils
were, of course, promoted according to their proficiency and ability.
In the temple-schools boys were trained to copy religious texts both in
the hieroglyphic and hieratic characters, and they studied religious
literature, exegesis, the legends of the gods, funerary texts, etc.
In the schools of the Government Departments the teaching was devised
to suit the requirements of the Treasury, the Public Granaries, the
Crown Lands’ Department, etc., and the pupils studied arithmetic, the
keeping of accounts, geometry, mensuration, the writing of reports,
etc. In all schools boys were taught to be clean, diligent, obedient,
respectful and well-behaved. Lessons began early in the morning and
lasted till noon, when, as a papyrus in the British Museum says: “the
pupils left the school with cries of joy.” The daily allowance of food
for a boy was three bread-cakes and two jugs of beer, which were brought
to the school-house by his mother every day. Corporal punishment was
administered freely, and the back of the lazy boy who would not get up
early, and that of the inattentive boy, received many stripes; in one
case a very bad boy was locked up for three whole months in a strong room
in one of the temples.
=School exercises= were written on small whitewashed boards, slices of
white limestone, and papyrus with a reed, and they usually consisted
of extracts from ancient texts, religious or poetical, the contents of
which were intended to improve the mind and form the morals and manners
of the reader and copyist. (See Standard-case C in the Third Egyptian
Room.) The education given in the =colleges of the Priests= was of a
different character. There the young men studied magical and religious
texts, several Books of the Dead, the doctrines of the cosmogony, and the
histories and legends of the gods. They read the ancient writings with
the priests whose duty it was to instruct them, and learned by heart
their expositions of the traditions accepted in the temples. One would
expect the colleges to have possessed glossaries, or dictionaries, and
grammars, but it is doubtful if they did, for nothing of the kind has
hitherto been discovered. =History= in the modern sense of the word was
unknown, though some of the great kings caused =Annals= of their reigns
to be written; and recent excavations have shown that even the =King
Lists= which were drawn up under the XVIIIth and XIXth dynasties are
incomplete, and that they contain the names of some kings wrongly spelt.
=Astronomy= was studied with some success by the priests, and the maps
of stars which were compiled by them were undoubtedly used for practical
purposes in connexion with the agriculture of the country.
[Illustration: Head of a seated figure of a priestess wearing a
full-plaited wig, bandlet, etc.
XVIIIth dynasty.
[Wall-case 103, Third Egyptian Room.]]
[Illustration: PLATE IX.
Painted relief with scenes representing dancing, the slaughter of cattle,
preparations for a feast, etc. From the tomb of Ur-ȧri-en-Ptaḥ.
VIth dynasty.
[Assyrian Basement, No. 80.]]
[Illustration: PLATE X.
Painted sepulchral tablet of Kaḥu, a scribe of a storehouse of Ȧmen.
XVIIIth dynasty.
[Northern Egyptian Gallery, Bay 12, No. 514.]]
=Dress and ornaments.=—The garments worn by the Egyptians were made
of =linen=, for wool was regarded as unclean. The earliest masculine
garment was the =loin-cloth=, the primitive form of which was preserved
for ceremonial purposes until a late period. Above it a =girdle=, or
belt, was usually added, and to this a =tail=, either that of some
animal, or an imitation made of leather, was fastened. The tail is worn
by many African peoples to this day. As time went on and fashion changed
the loin-cloth developed into a sort of skirt, which varied in length,
fulness, and folds, or a short kilt projecting in a peak just above the
knees. Later both men and women wore a sort of =shirt=, and over this
a loose flowing garment which reached from the neck to the feet. The
linen worn by women of the upper classes was of very fine texture, and
in the luxurious period of the XVIIIth and XIXth dynasties their apparel
was often very voluminous. The dress of men and women under the VIth
dynasty is well illustrated by the scenes from a maṣṭaba tomb (see the
Assyrian Saloon) reproduced on =Plate IX=, and under the XVIIIth dynasty
by the figures on the stele of Kaḥu (Bay 12, No. 514) (=Plate X=). Both
men and women wore =wigs=, which were sometimes very full and heavy,
but women plaited their natural hair. =Sandals= were made of papyrus
and palm-fibre, neatly woven or plaited, and sometimes of goat skin, or
gazelle skin, well tanned and stained a pink colour. (See Table-case A
in the Third Egyptian Room and Standard-case L in the Fourth Egyptian
Room.) The “=cone=” was worn on the head by men and women, sometimes with
a lotus flower or lily attached to it. According to some it contained a
ball saturated with oil or pomade of some kind, which ran slowly into
the hair, and so spread over the head and shoulders, causing pleasing
sensations to him on whose head the ball was. The =headdresses= of
the king and queen were very elaborate, whilst those of ordinary folk
consisted of a bandlet, more or less decorated. Men of position always
carried a staff or =walking stick= as a sign of authority, and those whom
the king had honoured by the gift of a =gold collar= wore it on every
important occasion. Both men and women wore rings, anklets, bracelets,
armlets, necklaces, elaborately ornamented collars, pectorals, pendants,
amulets, and earrings, just as they do in Egypt and the Sûdân at the
present time. Egyptian women stained the nails of their fingers and toes
a yellowish red with the juice of the =ḥenna= plant; they painted their
faces with a sort of =rouge=, and their eyelids and eyebrows with a
preparation of antimony (stibium, or =koḥl=), and they added under the
eyes thick lines of paint to make them appear large and full. Both men
and women sometimes decorated their bodies with =tattoo= markings, which
originally probably had a religious, or tribal, import. The burning winds
and heat made the use of unguents an absolute necessity, and =oils= and
=pomades= were very largely used in all periods. Strong scented woods
and herbs were pounded and mixed with oil, and rubbed into the body,
and =scents= were in ancient days, as now, in great demand. Often women
carried a =fan= and a =mirror=. A fine collection of mirrors is exhibited
in Wall-cases Nos. 182-187 in the Fourth Egyptian Room.
=Food.=—The food of the lower classes consisted chiefly of =bread= and
=vegetables=. The bread was made of a kind of millet, like the modern
=dhurra=, =barley=, and rarely of =wheat=. The grains were rolled and
crushed on a stone and then both the flour and the =bran= were mixed
with water into a stiff paste; from this pieces were broken off and
flattened out by the hand into cakes of various degrees of thickness,
which were baked on hot stones, or in mud-lined ovens. (See the examples
in Table-case H in the Third Egyptian Room.) Bread-cakes were made in
a variety of shapes, _e.g._, 𓏏, 𓏙, 𓏐, , 𓊔, , [glyph not in Unicode],
𓏖, 𓏑, etc. Among vegetables may be mentioned =onions=, =cucumbers=
of various kinds, =beans=, =peas=, =lentils=, =radishes=, =pumpkins=,
=water-melons=, =leeks=, =garlic=, =roots= of the turnip and carrot
class, and vegetables belonging to the class of the modern _bâmia_,
_bâdingân_ (egg-plant), _melûkhîyah_ (=spinach=), etc. All these grew in
great abundance, and, in growing, needed little attention, and formed
very important items in the food of all classes. (Compare Numbers xi,
4, 5: “And the children of Israel also wept again, and said, Who shall
give us flesh to eat? We remember the fish, which we did eat in Egypt
freely; the cucumbers, and the melons, and the leeks, and the onions, and
the garlick.”) =Milk= was drunk in large quantities by the living and
was offered to the dead, and =cheese= was everywhere a common article
of food. Among fruits may be mentioned =figs=, =dates=, =mulberries=,
=grapes=, and probably =pomegranates=. From both figs and dates =syrups=
and =sweetmeats= must have been made. =Fish= was largely eaten by the
poorer classes, but from various passages in the texts we learn that
the “eaters of fish” were unclean ceremonially. The =animal food=
eaten consisted of the flesh of the sheep, goat, ox, gazelle, ariel,
the antelope and other animals of that class, etc.; domestic animals
intended for human food were often =fattened artificially=. Groups of
swine are represented on the monuments occasionally, but the =pig= must
have been regarded as an unclean animal. Among the birds eaten were the
=goose=, =duck=, =pigeon=, =dove=, and the several kinds of birds which
were found in the marshes all over Egypt in ancient days. =Geese= also
were =fattened artificially=, and the trade in them must have been very
large. (See the wall painting in Standard-case I in the Third Egyptian
Room, where the inspection and counting of geese are represented.)
=Salt= was obtained from the lakes on the sea-coast, and =rock-salt=
from several places in the Western Desert. With cooked meats, stews,
etc., various kinds of seeds of the =spice= class were probably eaten, as
modern nations eat mustard and pepper.
The =common drink= of the country was =beer=, _ḥeqt_ 𓎛𓈎𓏏𓏊, made from
barley, and probably flavoured with plants of various kinds which took
the place of hops; in the earliest Liturgy of Funerary Offerings mention
is made of three or four kinds of beer. A =sweet beer= was made from
=honey=. =Wine= made from grapes was drunk by the upper classes, and the
lower classes drank =date wine=. This was, and still is, made by pouring
water on ripe, fleshy dates, and letting it stand for a number of days,
according to the strength of the wine required; after standing for a week
or so the liquor becomes an exceedingly strong intoxicant.
=Mode of eating.=—The peasant sat, or squatted, on the ground and dipped
his bread-cake into the mess of lentils or boiled vegetables which was in
a bowl resting either on the ground or on a poor wooden stand. Well-to-do
folk either sat on low stools, or lay on reed mats or cushions, and
dipped their hands into the various bowls of boiled grain, meat, and
vegetables which were placed on the small low stand that served as a
table, round which they were grouped. Water was drunk from earthenware
vessels, which were probably like the modern _ḳula_, or water-bottle, and
wine and beer from bowls. The joint was roughly cut or broken into small
pieces, probably before it was brought into the eating-chamber, but birds
were pulled to pieces by the head of the house and his family or guests
as they sat at meat. Fingers were wiped on the thin, flat bread-cakes,
but after the meal a member of the household brought a jug and basin and
poured water over the hands of those who had eaten. The chief meal of
the day was eaten about the time of sunset. The Egyptians were careful
to inculcate moderation in eating and drinking. Kaqemna, the sage, said:
“If thou art sitting in company hate the food which thou likest; restrain
thy appetite, for greediness savoureth of the beasts. Since one cup of
water will quench the thirst, and a mouthful of vegetables stablish the
heart, and one kind of good food is as satisfying as another, and a small
quantity [of food] is as good as a large quantity, the man who permitteth
his appetite to guide him is an abomination.” On the other hand, the
guest must take what his host gives him, and must eat it, for to leave
it uneaten is indeed an unmannerly act. And Ptaḥ-ḥetep said: “When thou
art seated among the guests of a great man, accept what he giveth thee
gracefully. Look before thee, nor stare [at the food], nor look at it
often; he who departeth from this rule is a boorish fellow. And speak
not to the great man more than is necessary, for one knoweth not what
word will displease him. Speak when he speaketh, and thy word shall give
pleasure.”
[Illustration: Relief with a hippopotamus. From the temple of Neb-ḥap-Rā
Menthu-ḥetep.
XIth dynasty.
[Northern Egyptian Gallery, Bay 3, No. 110.]]
=Amusements.=—The children of the poor were employed as soon as possible
in tending the animals in the field, and they had few toys to play with;
the children of well-to-do folk had painted wooden dolls, with hair made
of strings of mud or porcelain beads, and movable joints, models of
animals, etc. The chief amusement of men was =hunting=, and =fishing=,
and =fowling=. Fish and water-fowl were usually caught in nets, but as
bronze =fish hooks= have been found (see Table-cases B and J in the
Third Egyptian Room) the rod and line must also have been used. The
Egyptian sportsman set out on the marshes in a shallow boat with low
bows and stern, taking with him his short =fishing spears=, =harpoons=,
=boomerangs= (see Table-case E in the Third Egyptian Room), nets, his
=hunting-cat= (see the wall-painting in Case I in the Third Egyptian
Room), servants, and sometimes a favourite wife or daughter. Nets were
cast for fish in certain parts of the marshes, and the boat was poled
in among the high reeds and bulrushes where the birds congregated. The
skilled boomerang thrower soon brought down many birds, and his efforts
were ably seconded by his hunting-cat. Among the birds may be mentioned
the =vulture=, =eagle=, =hawk=, =falcon=, =buzzard=, =kite=, =crow=,
=lark=, =linnet=, =sparrow=, =quail=, =pelican=, =ibis=, =swallow=,
=heron=, =goose=, =pigeon=, etc. Occasionally the =hippopotamus= was
attacked among the dense papyrus growths, and the animal was usually
harpooned to death, as was the custom in the Sûdân until recently, for
the sake of the flesh. The =crocodile= was also sometimes caught. No
hippopotamus has been seen living in Egypt in a natural state for very
many generations, and the crocodile retreated south of Kharṭûm soon after
paddle steamers were placed on the Nile. The crocodile was considered to
be a sacred animal for thousands of years, and a sacred crocodile was
kept and worshipped as the God of the Nile at Kharṭûm so recently as
the year 1829. The numerous ivory objects found in Predynastic graves
prove that the primitive Egyptians hunted and killed the =elephant=
(see Table-case L in the Third Egyptian Room), and it seems as if a
considerable amount of ivory passed into Egypt proper by way of the First
Cataract, for the ancient Egyptian name of the old frontier city was Ābu
𓍋𓃀𓅱𓃰𓅱𓄣𓈉, _i.e._, “Elephant City” (hence “Elephantine”). At a very early
period, however, the elephant must have retreated far to the south, for
he plays no part in Egyptian mythology, and figures of the animal are
rare. (See the carnelian elephant in Table-case F, in the Fourth Egyptian
Room.) The =bear= also seems to have been hunted. (See page 86.)
The deserts on each side of the Nile were hunted in all periods, and
if we may trust the paintings in the tombs excellent sport was always
to be had. The animals most commonly hunted were the =lion=, =lynx=,
=leopard=, =panther=, =wolf=, =jackal=, =wild-dog=, =fox=, =hyaena=,
=hare=, =gazelle=, =oryx=, =ibex=, =ariel=, and many other animals of
that class. In primitive times the Egyptians caught many animals with
the =lasso= (see the green slate shield exhibited in Table-case L in the
Third Egyptian Room). The rope was thrown over the horns, or round the
legs, of the animal, which was then easily pulled down. The weapons used
in =hunting= were =clubs=, =bows=, =flint-tipped arrows=, boomerangs, and
doubled-headed axes, all of which are shown in the illustrations on page
23. The indigenous ancestors of the dynastic Egyptians probably hunted
the =elephant=, =rhinoceros=, and =giraffe=, but it is unlikely that many
of these creatures remained in Egypt in the Historical Period. =Dogs=
were employed largely in hunting, and several species are known. The most
useful and valuable was the large dog, something like the greyhound,
with prick ears and a long curling tail, of the same species which is
used in Mesopotamia and Persia and the Sûdân at the present day, and is
called _Salûḳî_. The boldness of this kind of dog, called in Egyptian
_thesem_ 𓍿𓊃𓅓𓃡, is marvellous, for he will attack panthers and lions,
and his fleetness is almost incredible. His speed is compared with that
of a flash of light in the Book of the Dead (Chapter XXIV). The kings of
the XVIIIth dynasty were great hunters, and Ȧmen-ḥetep III, who hunted
from the Euphrates in the North to the Blue Nile in the South, states on
his scarabs that he killed with his own hand 110 fierce lions during the
first ten years of his reign. (See Table-case D, Fourth Egyptian Room,
Nos. 925-929.)
[Illustration: Green schist bear.
Archaïc Period.
[No. 10, Table-case L, Third Egyptian Room.]]
Next to hunting =dancing= was perhaps the most favourite amusement of the
Egyptians, and from Pyramid times the Egyptians delighted in watching
men and women perform. The dances were accompanied sometimes by youths
who played a =reed pipe= or =flute=, single or double, or twanged the
strings of an instrument of the =harp=, 𓏢, or =lute= class. (See the
fine examples in Table-case A in the Fourth Egyptian Room.) The kings of
the Ancient Empire loved a dance called the “dance of the god” which
was danced by the =Pygmies= in Central Africa; and two of them, Ȧssȧ and
Pepi, caused a Pygmy to be brought from his remote country to Memphis to
dance before them. =Dancing women= danced and sang to the accompaniment
of the =tambourine=, which was also used, together with the =sistrum=
𓏣, =cymbals=, and =bells=, in musical services in the temples. The
=drum=, both the large drum which was beaten with tabs of leather, and
the small =hand drum=, was a very favourite instrument of music, and
was largely used in festivities by every class. =Tumblers=, =acrobats=,
and =buffoons= afforded amusement to the spectators, and the drawings
found on the walls of some of the tombs at Beni Hasan (B.C. 2300) show
that many of the tricks exhibited at the present day were performed at
that time. The well-to-do Egyptian hired dancers, singers, gymnasts, and
musicians, and entertained his guests, both during and after feasts, with
their performances.
The Egyptian loved to play =draughts= on earth, in Egyptian _sent_
𓊃𓈖𓏏𓏠, and he earnestly hoped that he would do the same in heaven. (See
Standard-case F in the Third Egyptian Room, where the scribe Ani and
his wife are represented playing draughts in the Other World.) How the
game was played is not known, but there must have been several kinds of
games, for the =draughtboards= are not all arranged in the same way.
(For examples of them see Standard-cases C and H in the Fourth Egyptian
Room.) The top of the box which held the =draughtsmen= formed the board
on which the game was played. The Egyptians played a number of games
with =counters=, but the methods are unknown. Numbers of =dice= have
been found in the tombs, but it is doubtful if the die was known among
the Egyptians of the Early Empire. Many of their games were, no doubt,
games of chance. The modern equivalent of the draughts and counters
of the ancient Egyptians is dominoes. The poor man, it seems from
the texts, sometimes betook himself to “the house for swilling beer”
𓋴𓅨𓂋𓇋𓈗𓏊𓎛𓈎𓏏𓏊𓉐𓏤, where he got drunk, and babbled about his affairs, and
fell about and hurt himself, and was then cast out of the door by his
fellow drinkers who said: “out with this swiller,” 𓁷𓂋𓇋𓅱𓈐𓅮𓄿𓏭𓋴𓅨𓂋𓇋𓈗𓏊𓂡𓏪.
When his friends came to seek him and upbraid him, they found him lying
on the ground as helpless as a child (Maxims of Khensu-ḥetep, XIII).
During the dark, moonless nights, after long weary days spent in hauling
up water from the river, the peasant villager had little to amuse him,
except games played with counters and draughts, and the converse of his
companions in the “beer-house.”
[Illustration: Egyptian house, with inner chamber and two flights of
steps leading to the roof.
About B.C. 4000.
[No. 292, Wall-case 107, Third Egyptian Room.]]
=Dwelling Houses.=—The king usually lived in a palace or large building
within the precincts of some temple, or at a very little distance from
one. His palace was probably like the large houses of modern times in
Egypt, _i.e._, it had a courtyard with trees in the middle of it, and a
large garden round about it. In the garden were fish-ponds and groves of
fruit trees, palms, acacias, flowering shrubs with scented blossoms,
and a limited number of flowers. There were arbours, too, covered with
creepers and vines, and the gardeners watered the ground daily by means
of small channels into which water was poured from the _shâdûf_, or the
water wheel. The courtyards were paved, or tiled, or covered with floors
made of inlaid painted porcelain work. The walls and ceilings of the
rooms were painted with rich and intricate designs, and in a few of the
rooms there were openings near the roof which served as windows. The
royal furniture was probably richly painted and inlaid with ebony, ivory,
porcelain, and, under the New Empire, metal vases of all shapes and sizes
would be seen everywhere in the dwelling rooms. Certain large rooms were
set apart for receptions and entertainments, and these probably contained
large raised benches placed along the walls for the guests. The kitchen,
pantry, stables, and general servants’ quarters were outside the house,
but the personal attendants on the king and queen, the steward, the
master of the chambers, etc., had their apartments in the palace. The
storeys were rarely more than two in number, and the roof, which was
flat, was approached by a flight of steps, either from the courtyard or
from the roof of the storey on the ground floor.
The =houses of nobles= were built on the same lines as the palace, but
with less magnificence, and they seldom consisted of more than two
storeys. There was a courtyard, with sets of small rooms built on three
sides of it, and a portico on the fourth. On the flat roof were wind
shafts by which the north wind was brought into the rooms, and a small
amount of light was also admitted into them through openings in the upper
parts of the walls, close to the ceiling. Then as now, at certain seasons
of the year, some of the members of the family slept on the roof or in
the courtyard, the remainder on the upper floor. Near the house were the
wine-press, beer-house, stable, byres for cattle, bins for various kinds
of grain, etc., and chambers for storing the fruit and vegetables from
the estate. The garden contained a small lake, and in the ground round
about, which was divided into oblong beds, were fruit trees and flowering
shrubs with scented blossoms, vines, etc. The whole was enclosed within
a thick mud wall built probably of crude brick. The =farmhouse= of one
storey usually contained one living-room, one bed-room, and a number
of small chambers in which grain was stored. On the roof was a small
chamber to which the master retired in the cool of the evening; this was
approached by means of a flight of solid mud steps. The corn was ground
and the bread baked in the courtyard, where also were kept the large
porous earthenware jars, like the modern _zîr_, containing the =supply
of water= which was brought to the house from the Nile each morning and
evening. The house and yard were enclosed by a strong mud wall, with one
door in it; in times of danger the cattle of the farm were driven from
the fields into the yard. A good model of this kind of house is exhibited
in Standard-case C, in the Fourth Egyptian Room. Here are seen the master
sitting in the chamber on the wall, or roof, with a plate of food before
him, and the wife rolling the dough for the bread-cakes of the evening
meal. The =house of the peasant= labourer was a mere hut made of mud, the
roof of which was formed of layers of palm branches or straw. Small huts
were made of reeds or palm trees bound together with twigs, and perhaps
daubed with mud in the cold weather, and in the northern districts of
mud; in the summer a shelter of reed mats probably sufficed.
[Illustration: Egyptian hut.
About B.C. 4000.
[No. 293, Wall-case 108, Third Egyptian Room.]]
=Furniture.=—The Egyptians did not fill their houses with furniture like
Western Nations. Their =bedsteads= were made of wood, which usually came
from the Sûdân, and consisted of a strong rectangular framework, about
15 or 20 inches high, across which was stretched plaited palm fibre, or
rope; the _ankarîb_ of the Sûdân is the modern equivalent. The covering
of such beds was formed of thick padded linen sheets, and the =pillow=
was a support made of wood, or ivory, more or less ornamented, with a
curved top for the neck to fit into. (See Wall-cases Nos. 97, 98, in the
Third Egyptian Room.) =Carpets= were unknown, but plaited palm leaf or
straw mats took their place. =Chairs= (see Standard-case H in the Fourth
Egyptian Room) and =tables= were found in the houses of the wealthy, but
only low =stools= were known in poor abodes. (For examples of a painted
table, chairs inlaid with ivory and ebony, a couch-frame, stools, inlaid
box, etc., see Standard-case L in the Fourth Egyptian Room.) Men, women,
and children squatted or sat on the floor, or reclined upon mats, and in
later days upon cushions made of padded linen. In houses of moderate size
there was probably a raised mud bench, covered with mats in the receiving
or eating room, for the use of the male members of the house, or their
guests. There was also, probably, a raised mud bench built against the
_outside_ of one of the walls of the house for the use of friends who sat
there in the cool of the evening and for the men of the house to sleep on
during hot nights. Niches, or square cavities cut in the walls, served as
=cupboards=, and in one of these the =lamp= (see Wall-case No. 176 in the
Fourth Egyptian Room), usually made of earthenware, stood.
[Illustration: Ivory head-rest, or pillow, of Ḳua-ṭep.
XIIth dynasty.
[No. 69, Wall-case 98, Third Egyptian Room.]]
The stores of clothing, etc., were kept in a very small room provided
with a stout wooden door with a =bolt-lock= and =key= of simple pattern.
(For examples of bolts and keys, see Wall-cases Nos. 180, 181, in the
Fourth Egyptian Room.) The mistress of the house usually possessed a
small strong =box= in which she kept jewellery, ornaments, and amulets,
and perhaps also her toilet requisites; in some cases the latter were
kept in a special =toilet box=, which held =eye-paint= (stibium, or
antimony, koḥl), =comb=, =hair-tweezers=, =pumice-stone=, =unguents= and
=pomades=, both scented and plain. (See Standard-case L in the Fourth
Egyptian Room.) =Kitchen utensils= were comparatively few in number.
Fresh and sour milk (or curds), soft cheese, sheep-fat, etc., were kept
in earthenware pots, some of which were undoubtedly glazed; bowls made
of earthenware or gourds were common, as were large open saucers. The
=cooking pots= were usually of earthenware, or, among well-to-do people,
of metal. =Knives= made of flint, stone, or metal, were common, and rough
flesh =forks=; in the later period =spoons= were used. =Plates=, in the
modern sense of the word, were unknown; the thick bread-cake served as
a plate for those who squatted round the bowl of cooked vegetables with
pieces of meat on the top, and the thin flat cake was frequently used
as a napkin. A stone =corn-grinder= and a =kneading-stone= were found
in every house. The stock of grain for the family was kept in large
earthenware jars, or in a kind of bin made of mud. Every house contained
a =figure of the god= under whose protection the family lived, and to
this adoration was offered at regular intervals; it took part in the
family-councils, its lot was bound up with that of the family, and it
prevented wandering spirits of evil disposition from entering the house.
There being no =chimney= to the house, the =fire= was lit wherever it was
most convenient, and the smoke went out through the roof and the aperture
in the wall which served as a window. The =fuel= was animal dung, and
such refuse from the straw as could not be eaten by the cow or goat of
the house, and, occasionally, pieces of wood. As =matches= were unknown,
care was taken to keep a small amount of fuel smouldering under the
ashes, so that whenever it was necessary to boil lentils, etc., the fire
could be revived; if the fire was out, recourse was had to the striking
of =flints=, or to some neighbour, or to the temple fire. In primitive
times the Egyptians seem to have used a =fire-stick=, like some of the
tribes of Central Africa.
=Agriculture and Cattle-breeding.=—By far the larger part of the
population of Egypt and the Egyptian Sûdân has been for many thousands
of years past connected with the cultivation of the soil and the rearing
of cattle, and on the success of the =farmer= and the =cattle-breeder=
the prosperity of the whole country has always depended. In remote ages,
before the estuary of the Nile was filled up by the mud which came down
in flood-time from the mountains of Ethiopia and Nubia, and while still
the sea flowed up the Nile as far as Esna, the primitive Egyptians were
shepherds and herdsmen. The great cattle-breeding district was situated
in the neighbourhood of the country now called Dâr Fûr, or the “Home of
the Fûrs,” and even to the present day the exportation of the beautiful
cattle of the district forms a very important item of Sûdân trade.
The natives who lived by breeding cattle were called by the Egyptians
“Menti,” _i.e._, “=cattle-men=,” and their modern descendants are called
“Baḳḳârah,” which also means “cattle-men.” In all times they have been
a wild and lawless folk, ferocious, blood-thirsty, and cruel. The early
cattle-men worshipped the =bull=, and this animal played a prominent
part in later Egyptian mythology. Several kinds of bulls were worshipped
in Egypt: =Apis= at Memphis, =Mnevis= at Heliopolis, and =Bachis= at
Hermonthis, and one of the greatest of the titles of Osiris was “Bull of
Ȧmentet,” or “Bull of the Other World.” The =cow= also was worshipped
under the name of Hathor, and a flint cow-head in the British Museum
(Table-case M in the Third Egyptian Room) proves that her cult dates
from the latter part of the Neolithic Period. The paintings on the
walls of early tombs show that several kinds of cattle were known to
the Egyptians, and the inscriptions make it clear that the old feudal
lords and gentry of Egypt devoted much attention to cattle-breeding, and
that they made a regular trade of it. (See the models of cows in the
Wall-cases on the Landing of the North-West Staircase, No. 140, and the
wall painting in Standard-case I in the Third Egyptian Room.) =Oxen= and
=cows= were fattened like the smaller animals and geese, and, before they
were turned out for the season into the deserts to browse upon the growth
which followed the rains, they were branded, or marked in some way with
their owner’s name.
[Illustration: The bull Ḥāp (Apis), with the triangular blaze on his
forehead, and the scarabs, etc., on his back.
[Table-case H, Third Egyptian Room.]]
[Illustration: The bull Mer-ur (Mnevis).
[Table-case H, Third Egyptian Room.]]
[Illustration: Flint Cow’s head.
[No. 86, Table-case M, Third Egyptian Room.]]
The =camel= was certainly known in the Predynastic Period, for the head
of an earthenware figure of one was found at Abydos a few years ago;
but this animal cannot have been used for transport purposes, or bred
by the early Dynastic Egyptians, for otherwise we should find pictures
of him on the walls of the tombs. One of the earliest mentions of the
camel is contained in the “Travels of an Egyptian” (Brit. Mus. Papyrus
No. 10,247), where we find the Semitic word for camel under the form
_kamāȧl_ 𓎡𓄿𓅖𓇋𓄿𓏭𓂋𓏤𓄛. The camel plays no part in Egyptian mythology. The
commonest beast of burden was the =ass=, which was bred in large numbers,
and was employed like oxen for treading out the corn and for riding. One
of the desert caravans of Ḥer-Khuf, an old feudal lord of Elephantine
under the VIth dynasty, contained 300 asses. The ass was admired for his
strength, endurance, and virility, and he appears in Egyptian mythology
as a form of the Sun-god. =Sheep= and =goats= were always bred in large
numbers. The =horse= may have been known in Egypt in the XIIth dynasty,
but he was not bred there until the experience gained by the Egyptians
in their Asiatic campaigns showed them his value in military operations.
Horses must have been plentiful in Egypt under the XXIInd dynasty, “for
Solomon had horses brought out of Egypt,” and “a chariot came up and
went out of Egypt, for six hundred _shekels_ of silver, and an horse for
an hundred and fifty” (1 Kings x, 28, 29). Excellent representations of
horses are seen in the wall-painting in Standard-case D in the Third
Egyptian Room, and in the battle-scene of Rameses II on the South Wall of
the Fourth Egyptian Room, above the cases.
The =pig= is not often represented on the monuments, but a painting in
a tomb at Thebes shows that swine were used on farms for treading out
the corn. From a very early period the god of evil, Set, was believed
to have appeared in the form of a “black pig” 𓂋𓂋𓃟𓆎𓅓𓏜 when he smote the
Eye of Horus (_i.e._, the Sun). The gods then decreed that pigs should
be sacrificed to Horus, with bulls, sheep, and goats. In one form of the
Judgment Scene the pig is the emblem of evil, and also in the Book of the
Dead (see Chapters XXXVI and CXII). On the other hand, the =sow= was an
animal sacred to Isis, and small figures of sows were worn as amulets
attached to necklaces. (See the figures of sacred animals in Wall-case
No. 121 in the Third Egyptian Room.) Under the early dynasties a species
of =ram=, which became the symbol of the god Khnemu 𓁠, with flat horns
projecting at right angles from the sides of his head 𓃝, was common
in Nubia, but it appears to have died out before the end of the XIIth
dynasty. Another kind of ram apparently indigenous to Nubia, became the
symbol of the god Ȧmen of the Sûdân.
The principal instrument used in farming was the =plough= 𓍁, the share
of which was made of a piece of wood tied to a long pole; at the other
end of the pole was fixed a bar, which was made fast to the horns of the
cows which drew the plough. This primitive instrument was little more
than a stout stake tied to a pole which was drawn over the ground, and
made a very shallow furrow. The stiff Nile mud was further broken up by
the =hoe= 𓌸, of which examples may be seen in the Wall-case No. 102 in
the Third Egyptian Room (No. 281, etc.). As soon as the fields were ready
to receive the seed, the =sowing= took place, and when the seed had been
cast into the furrows it was trodden in by the animals on the farm being
driven over it. The sowing was done by hand, and no drill appears to have
been used. The fields were watered either by allowing the water to flow
from a large basin or reservoir on to them, or by machines which lifted
the water from the canal to their level, or from the Nile itself. The
commonest water-raising machine resembled the modern =shâdûf=, which was
worked by one or two men. Two stout stakes were driven firmly into the
ground at the edge of the stream, and between them was tied a long pole,
heavily weighted with a mass of mud or stone at one end. To the end of
the longer half of the pole a rope and a leather bucket were tied. The
labourer drew the pole down until the bucket entered the stream, and the
weight of the counterpoise at the other end helped him to raise the water
to the surface of the field, where he poured it into the channel leading
to the growing crop.
At the =harvest= the crops were cut with the small =sickle= 𓌳 (see
Table-case K in Third Egyptian Room, Nos. 1-4), which in primitive times
was made of flint or a series of flints set in a wooden frame [glyph
not in Unicode], and in later times of iron or bronze. The wheat or
barley was tied up into small bundles by the reapers, and carried to the
=threshing floor=, where the grain was trodden out by animals—donkeys,
swine, etc. The threshing floor, as we may see from the wall paintings
and pictures on papyri, was circular in form, and its edges were raised,
, thus preventing the animals, as they ran round and round in it, from
scattering the grain with their feet. The operations of ploughing,
reaping, and =treading out the corn= are well illustrated by the Vignette
No. 35, from the Ani Papyrus. (See Standard-case G in the Third Egyptian
Room.) When the grain had been trodden out, it was thrown up by hand
into heaps, the wind blowing away the chaff whilst it was in the air.
It was next carried in baskets, or bags, to the store or granary, which
was usually near the house. Here it was either piled up in heaps on
mud stands with raised edges 𓊚, or poured into large bins built in the
walls along a rectangular courtyard. (See the models of granaries in
Standard-case C in the Fourth Egyptian Room.)
=Trade.=—The trade of Egypt appears to have been chiefly in the hands
of the seafaring folk of the Delta, who probably worked the imports and
exports of the country in connection with the Semitic merchants who
traded in the seaports of Phoenicia and the Mediterranean generally.
The chief =export= of Egypt was =corn=, which was carried all over the
Mediterranean, and we know from Genesis xii, xli-xliii, that when grain
was scarce in other countries, the merchants were in the habit of going
to Egypt to supply their wants. At intervals, however, serious famines
came upon Egypt (Genesis xli, 55, 56), and when corn could not be
imported, the mortality among the people was very great. In the reign of
Ptolemy III (B.C. 247) there was a famine in Egypt, and the King expended
much gold in purchasing grain at a high price to save the lives of the
people of Egypt, and he caused corn to be brought to Egypt from Eastern
Syria, and Phoenicia, and Cyprus. Next in importance came the =linen= of
Egypt, which, in the form of byssus, was famous throughout Western Asia.
Under the XVIIIth dynasty considerable quantities of =gold= were exported
from Egypt to Northern Syria, Assyria and Babylonia. The gold came
from the Eastern Sûdân and Punt, where at that time (B.C. 1500) it was
produced in such large quantities that Tushratta writing to Ȧmen-ḥetep
III says: “Send me so much gold that it cannot be measured, more gold
than that thou didst send to my father; for in my brother’s land (_i.e._,
Egypt), gold is as common as dust”! (Tell al-Amarna tablet, No. 8.)
According to Diodorus (ed. Didot, p. 41) Rameses II received from his
gold and silver mines in one year metal to the value of 32,000,000 minas,
or £80,000,000 sterling. Another article of export was paper manufactured
from =papyrus=.
Among the =imports= may be mentioned =copper= and =tin= from Cyprus and
Northern Syria, =cedar= wood from the Lebanon Mountains, =lapis-lazuli
paste= from Babylonia, =myrrh= and =spices= for embalming, =skins=,
=cattle=, =ebony=, =ostrich feathers=, =bows=, =pillows=, =chairs=,
=couches=, =fans=, =mats=, =shields=, etc., from the Sûdân; and a number
of the products of India and Arabia must have found their way into Egypt
by means of the caravans which crossed the desert to some place near the
modern Suez or Ḳanṭarah, and some sea-borne goods entered Egypt by the
route from the Red Sea to the Nile, _viâ_ Ḳuṣêr and Ḳena. The importance
of Egypt as a trading centre, and as the natural market half-way between
the East and the West, was not fully recognized until the Ptolemaïc
Period, about B.C. 250. Business was carried on chiefly by =barter=, so
much wheat, barley, or millet being the value of a sheep, bull, cow, or
goat, linen, etc. The Egyptians used =weights= and =measures=, _e.g._,
the =royal cubit= of 7 palms or 28 fingers, the =little cubit= of 6 palms
or 24 fingers, the =palm= of 4 fingers, the =hand= of 5 fingers, the
=fist= of 6 fingers, and the =finger=; of =dry measure=, the =hen=, the
=ṭenȧt=, the =ȧpt=, etc.; of =weight=, the =ṭeben= (= 3⅕ ounces), the
=ḳeṭ= = ⅟₁₀th of a ṭeben, etc. The use of the =scales= was well known,
but there is no evidence that the steelyard was employed before the
Roman Period. =Stamped money= was unknown among the Egyptians, but they
appear to have used a =currency= which consisted of pieces of wire made
of copper, iron, or gold, and gold-dust. =Ring-money=, made of gold, is
represented in the painting on the south wall of the Fourth Egyptian
Room; and also the little bags containing gold dust. Ring-money in gold
is in use at the present day along the east coast of Africa, and in
certain parts of the Sûdân copper wire still possesses great purchasing
powers.
[Illustration: Jewellers drilling and polishing beads, etc.
XVIIIth dynasty.
[Northern Egyptian Gallery, Bay 12, No. 518.]]
=Handicrafts.=—The Egyptian of all periods was a skilled =potter=. In
the earliest times the potter’s wheel was unknown, and every vessel was
shaped by the potter’s hand or foot. Vessels of all sorts, shapes, and
sizes were made with great skill, and in later periods were decorated
with linear and other designs. The art of the potter throve until the
advent of the conquerors from Asia, when it began to languish; and in
a few centuries earthenware vessels were superseded by stone. Good
examples of Predynastic and Archaïc pottery will be found in the cases
on the Landing of the North-West Staircase, and of the pottery of the
later periods in the Fourth Egyptian Room. The =Basket-weaver= wove rush
matting, plaited mats and sandals, and made ropes and baskets of all
kinds. Specimens of his work will be seen in Table-case A in the Third
Egyptian Room, and in Wall-cases 182-187 in the Fourth Egyptian Room.
Owing to the abundance of flax in Egypt the trade of the =linen-weaver=
was in all periods most flourishing, and the “fine linen of Egypt” was
famous throughout Western Asia and the seaports of the Mediterranean.
A staff of linen weavers appears to have been attached to each temple,
and the sale of their work produced a large revenue; a portion was paid
to the king, and the rest was kept by the priests. The city of Ȧpu
(Panopolis, the modern Akhmîm) was one of the chief seats of the linen
industry, and to this day the dyed curtains of Akhmîm are used throughout
Egypt. The craft of the =jeweller= was very important, for, in addition
to the rings, bracelets, necklaces, pendants, earrings, etc., which he
made in gold and silver, he cut the =amulets= and ornaments in amethyst,
garnet, agate, onyx, chalcedony, carnelian, jasper, mother-of-emerald,
lapis-lazuli, turquoise, rock-crystal, basalt, porphyry, haematite,
obsidian, coral, mother-of-pearl, etc. (See Table-cases F, J.) The finest
work of the jeweller belongs to the XIIth dynasty, and the workmen of
that period brought the art of =inlaying precious stones= and metals to a
very high pitch of perfection. Some think that the Egyptians understood
the art of =enamelling=, but authorities are not agreed on this point.
The =glass-maker’s= craft is a very old one in Egypt, and it is probable
that the Phoenicians borrowed it from that country. Fine specimens of it
in the British Museum are the turquoise-blue opaque glass jar of Thothmes
III (Table-case H, No. 50, Third Egyptian Room), a blue glass bowl, and a
variegated glass bowl from the tomb of Ȧmen-ḥetep II (Nos. 57, 59, in the
same case), and an opaque glass stibium pot with a gold rim (Wall-cases
182-187, No. 29). The =porcelain maker= produced the little figures,
amulets, bowls, vases, ushabtiu-figures, tiles, beads, pendants, etc.,
in the beautiful blue, green, purple, violet, and brown glazed ware to
which the name =Egyptian porcelain= is usually given. An exceedingly
fine collection of objects in this material is exhibited in Wall-cases
Nos. 151-156 in the Fourth Egyptian Room. The =leather worker= prepared
parchments for writing materials, and made the harness for horses and
trappings for chariots, soldiers’ belts (Table-case B, No. 193), sheaths
for daggers (No. 37), nets of fine meshes (Wall-case No. 187, Fourth
Egyptian Room), seats for chairs (No. 5 Standard-case L, same room), bags
in which barbers carried their razors, etc. (Wall-case No. 184, Fourth
Egyptian Room.) Examples of the tools of the =carpenter=, =blacksmith=
and =coppersmith=, =stonemason=, =house-painter= and =decorator=, etc.,
will be found in Table-case K and Wall-case 103 in the Third Egyptian
Room.
Of the =brickmaker’s= work specimens belonging to the reigns of
Ȧmen-ḥetep III, Thothmes I, Thothmes III, and Rameses II are exhibited
in Wall-case 175, Fourth Egyptian Room. Examples of the craft of the
=furniture maker= in the form of tables, chairs, stools, couches, toilet
boxes, altar-stands, etc., are seen in Standard-case L and Wall-case
No. 190 in the Fourth Egyptian Room. The work of the =ivory carver=
went hand in hand with that of the carpenter as regards the inlaying of
chair frames, jewel-boxes, etc. (see Nos. 13 and 16 in Standard-case L).
Specimens of the highest form of his skill are seen in the chair-legs,
human figures, spoons, etc., in Table-case A in the Fourth Egyptian Room.
The =caster-in-metal= produced the splendid series of figures of the gods
in Wall-cases 119-132 and Table-case H in the Third Egyptian Room; fine
examples are the =silver figure of Ȧmen-Rā= (No. 42), =gold figures= of
Thoth, Ptaḥ and Rā, (Nos. 21, 25, 26), and the gold figure of Osiris (No.
34). The =wood-carver= made the models of men, boats, animals, etc.,
which were placed in the tombs (see Wall-case Nos. 192, 193, Fourth
Egyptian Room), and =dolls= and =children’s toys= (see Standard-case C,
Fourth Egyptian Room). The =dyer= produced the salmon-coloured linen
coverings for mummies (see Case L, First Egyptian Room), the brown
mummy-swathings (see Wall-cases 93-96, Third Egyptian Room), and coloured
wearing apparel (see Table-case E, Third Egyptian Room), etc.
The =baker= and =confectioner= found constant employment in every town
and village in Egypt, for the Egyptians loved cakes made with honey,
and fruit of all kinds, and bread and buns made into fanciful shapes.
A great business was done in bread and pastry which were intended to
serve as funerary offerings. Specimens of the bread and the stands on
which the flat loaves were placed, will be found in Table-case H, Third
Egyptian Room. The terra-cotta =cones= 𓏙 which are exhibited in large
numbers in Wall-cases 110, 111, are supposed by some to represent the
loaves, of a pyramidal shape, seen in the hands of kings and others who
are represented offering to the gods. The =barber= also found constant
employment, for many had their whole heads and bodies shaved every
two or three days. He also dressed the hair of ladies on ceremonial
occasions, and made =wigs= (see the fine example in Wall-case H, Third
Egyptian Room). The barber often united to his trade the profession of
=physician=, just as was the case in Europe in the Middle Ages. The craft
of the =boat-builder= was very important in a country where a river was
the chief highway. Flat-bottomed boats and punts used in fishing in the
canals, or fowling on the marshes, were made of bundles of reeds, or
papyrus, tied together, like the modern _tôf_ in the Sûdân. Boats for
carrying merchandize on the river were made of planks of wood pegged
together, which were sometimes kept in position by being nailed on to
ribs, and others were merely tied round with ropes made of papyrus. One
of the earliest known pictures of an Egyptian boat is seen on vase No.
160, in Wall-case No. 5, on the landing of the North-West Staircase.
Models of funeral boats, and barges and war boats are exhibited on the
upper shelf of Wall-cases Nos. 99-110, in the Third Egyptian Room. The
Egyptians were skilful boat builders, and they made rafts capable of
carrying enormous blocks of stone, _e.g._, the obelisks which Queen
Ḥātshepset set up at Karnak. They had equivalents of the modern broad
ferry-boat, barge, lighter, etc., which they worked with oars or “sweeps”
and sails, or towed, when going upstream, and when there was no wind.
CHAPTER V.
ARCHITECTURE, PAINTING, SCULPTURE, ETC.
=Architecture.=—The history of the earliest form of Egyptian architecture
cannot be written because, with the exception of the ruined tombs of
the Archaïc Period, all the remains of the earliest temples have been
destroyed or have perished. The oldest form of the =house= was, no doubt,
a hut built of reeds, the roof of which was supported by a pole, _i.e._,
a tree trunk, or poles; its shape was round or oblong. The cold winds
of winter prompted the Egyptian to make the walls of his abode of Nile
mud; this he mixed with water until it acquired the consistence of stiff
paste, and then piled it up with his hands until the walls were as thick
and high as he wanted them to be. All the walls inclined inwards, and so
each helped to support the other; the roof was made of a layer of mud
which rested on a number of pieces of palm trunks or small trees. The
door probably faced the south, and an aperture, which served as a window,
was cut high up in the north wall. (See the model of an early house,
No. 174, North-West Staircase Landing.) Before the house was a small
yard enclosed by thick walls made of mud, which inclined inwards, and a
flight of solid mud steps led up to the roof. (See the =models of early
houses= in Wall-cases Nos. 105-108 in the Third Egyptian Room.) Walls
made of mud in this way are unsatisfactory, for they sag or bulge, and
soon fall down. The invention of the =brick= marked a great improvement
in the stability of buildings; and its use in the construction of houses,
granaries, government buildings, forts, etc., became universal. A theory
has been recently put forward that brickmaking was introduced into Egypt
from Mesopotamia, but there is no reason why, in a land where all the
soil is mud, which when well sun-dried becomes exceedingly hard, the idea
of making bricks should not have been indigenous. Few things in the East
last as long as a well-made brick, especially if it has been carefully
baked; and buildings, even when made of crude bricks, last for several
hundreds of years, unless they are destroyed by the hand of man. The
invention of the brick permitted the Egyptians to build the elliptical
=arch=, which is frequently found in brick-built buildings; the
knowledge of the arch is of ancient standing in Egypt. The early mud or
brick house of the man of means was provided with a =portico= (the modern
_rakûbah_), which was supported on palm trunks; this portico suggested
the colonnade of later days, and the palm trunks the stone pillars with
palm-leaf capitals.
[Illustration: Pylon and court of the Temple of Edfû.
Ptolemaïc Period.]
The “house of the god,” or =temple=, was at first built of mud, but what
such a building was like is not known. Under the Ancient Empire the
Egyptians built their temples of stone, and the oldest known example is
that called the “Temple of the Sphinx” at Gîzah. It is built on a simple
plan, and consists practically of a large hall, in the form , containing
16 pillars, each about 16 feet high; the materials used were granite
and limestone. It had neither formal door, nor windows, and such light
as entered must have made its way in through oblique slits in the roof.
It has no inscriptions, or bas-reliefs, or paintings, and even in its
present state its massiveness, dignity, and solidity greatly impress the
beholder.
[Illustration: Gateway in the Temple of Rameses III, at Madînat Habû, in
Western Thebes.
About B.C. 1200.]
Of the temples of the XIIth dynasty nothing is known, but of the New
Empire several temples exist, and their general characteristics may be
thus summarized. A broad path brought the worshipper to the gateway in
the wall which enclosed the temple precincts; on each side of the path
was a row of sphinxes, or rams, which symbolized the guardian spirits of
the place. Passing through the gateway he soon reached the =main pylon=,
which consisted of a massive doorway and two towers. During festivals
long painted poles, flying coloured streamers, were attached to the
face of the pylon at regular intervals. On each side of the gateway was
a =colossal statue= of the king, and statues of the king were often
arranged at intervals along the front of the pylon. Before the pylon
stood a =pair of obelisks=, and sometimes a =pair of sphinxes=, or sacred
animals. The original signification of the obelisks is unknown; it is
probable that they were connected with a solar, or even phallic cult,
but as the texts afford no explanation of their meaning it is useless to
theorize. Beyond the great pylon was an =open court=, with a colonnade,
which was used as a sort of bazaar where holy objects, amulets, and
things for offerings could be bought by the public. Here, too, the sick
were laid that alms might be given to them, and here beggars of all
kinds congregated, as they do in a modern mosque. Passing through a
=second pylon=, the hypostyle hall, or =hall of columns=, was entered,
and here the priests made their processions, and received the offerings
of the faithful. Beyond the hall, or halls of columns, the laity were
not permitted to penetrate. The other chambers of the temple formed
the sanctuary of the god, and contained his =shrine=. The little rooms
round about the shrine contained the temple library, and the dresses,
jewellery, and other sacred properties of the god, or gods, worshipped
in the temple. At the extreme end of the temple was the shrine of the
god, which was entered by no one except the king and the priests; in it
were kept a sacred boat, or ark, and a figure, or symbol, of the god, or
animal sacred to him.
[Illustration: Gateway of Ptolemy IX at Karnak.]
[Illustration: PLATE XI.
Columns in the Temple of Seti I, B.C. 1370, at Abydos.]
[Illustration: Granite obelisks at Karnak. That on the right bears the
name of Queen Ḥātshepset, and that on the left the name of Thothmes I.
XVIIIth dynasty, B.C. 1550.]
[Illustration: Pillars with ornamental capitals in the Temple of Isis at
Philae.
Ptolemaïc Period.]
The temples of Egypt from the XVIIIth dynasty to the Roman Period vary
greatly in detail, but the general plan is always the same. The great
temples of Karnak (see =Plate XXX=), Luxor, Abydos (see =Plate XI=),
etc., awe the spectator by their size and majestic dignity; the smaller
temples of the Ptolemaïc and Roman Periods are less grand, but are much
more graceful buildings. The severity of the interiors of the older
buildings is moderated by the reliefs and inscriptions with which walls,
pillars, pilasters, architraves, etc., are covered profusely, and the
bright colours, reds, blues, greens, and yellows, in which many of the
painted scenes were executed, added greatly to their general effect. The
massive =square pillars= were replaced in later times by pillars with
eight sides, and the whole character of the simple round column was
changed when its shaft was made to resemble a =papyrus= or =lotus stalk=,
and its upper part was sculptured in the form of the flower of either
plant. Both pillars and =pilasters= were sometimes decorated with figures
of Osiris, cut on the front face in high relief, as at Abû-Simbel, and
the capitals were often sculptured in the form of the head of Hathor (the
Cow-goddess), surmounted by a sistrum. The pillar with the Hathor-headed
capital was suggested by the pole, or small tree trunk, surmounted by the
head of a bull, ox, or cow, which the primitive Egyptians set up over the
graves of their chiefs, a custom which survives to the present day among
certain of the tribes of Central Africa. Every temple had a =sacred lake=
within its precincts, just as every large house possessed a garden with
an ornamental lake in it. Each temple also was surrounded by a =girdle
wall=, which was usually made exceedingly strong and was provided with
fortified gateways. The space between the temple buildings and this wall
was occupied by gardens and storehouses for the property of the priests,
and also by the dwellings of private folk. Thus the girdle wall of the
temple actually enclosed a small city, which in cases of popular panic or
invasion became a city of refuge.
[Illustration: Painted portrait statue of Ȧn-kheft-ka, a royal kinsman.
IVth dynasty, about B.C. 3700.
[Northern Egyptian Gallery, Bay 1, No. 33.]]
=Painting and sculpture.=—The Egyptians, from the IVth dynasty downwards,
were in the habit of painting the bas-reliefs in their temples and
tombs, and also their statues, and they seemed to have relied greatly
upon paintings in bright colours to enhance the effect of the work of
the sculptor. The earliest wall decoration consists of series of figures
of men, animals, etc., traced or cut in outline, or sculptured in low
relief, on tolerably smooth slabs of limestone; sometimes the surfaces
of the slabs were prepared with a sort of limewash, and the paintings
painted upon it. The skill of the painter, even in the remote period
of the IVth dynasty, is marvellous, and the accuracy with which he
represented every detail and characteristic of animate and inanimate
objects is beyond praise. At all periods, however, general scenes are
more or less hard, a fact due to want of perspective. The Egyptians
loved colour, and they used it wherever it could possibly be employed. A
striking instance of this is afforded by the elaborately painted papyri
of the Book of the Dead, which when once buried in the tomb were intended
to be seen by no other eye than that of the spirit of the deceased!
[Illustration: Alabaster figure of a priest seated on a throne with steps.
IVth-VIth dynasty.
[No. 156, Wall-case 99, Third Egyptian Room.]]
[Illustration: Head of a painted statue of Neb-ḥap-Rā Men-thu-ḥetep.
XIth dynasty.
[Northern Egyptian Gallery, Bay 3, No. 104.]]
[Illustration: Diorite statue of Sebek-nekht.
XIIth dynasty.
[No. 164, Wall-case 100, Third Egyptian Room.]]
The wall sculptures were of two kinds, the =bas-relief= and the =sunk
relief=. In the bas-relief the sculpture is raised a little above the
surface of the slab, and in the sunk relief it is a little below. The
sunk relief is one of the most characteristic features of Egyptian
sculpture. Of the first kind there are many examples in the Egyptian
Galleries of the British Museum, especially in the Vestibule at the north
end of the Northern Gallery, where the slab from the tomb of Rā-ḥetep at
Mêdûm (Egyptian Vestibule, No. 40), of the IVth dynasty may be specially
noted. Several portions of fine and delicately painted bas-reliefs from
the temple of Neb-ḥap-Rā; Menthu-ḥetep, of the XIth dynasty, at Dêr
al-Baḥarî, which are exhibited in Bay 2 of the Northern Gallery, are
worthy of careful study. The sepulchral tablet of Sebek-āa, of the XIth
dynasty, should be noted (Bay 4, No. 120; see =Plate XXIII=). Examples
of the sunk relief will be found in the Northern Egyptian Gallery, Bay
1. Both paintings and reliefs, however, are unsatisfactory from the
modern point of view, for while the head is given in profile, the eye is
represented as if the figure were in a full-faced position. A front view
is given of the shoulders, but the view of the other portions of the body
is a mixture of profile and full face. These facts are calculated to give
a false impression of the skill of the painter and sculptor, which, as
is admitted on all hands, was very great.
[Illustration: Figure of a king.
XIIIth dynasty.
[No. 178, Wall-case 102, Third Egyptian Room.]]
The artist was at a very early period fettered by tradition and
conventionality, but sufficient proofs have survived to show that when
free to give rein to his fancy he could produce even =caricatures= and
comic pictures of the most amusing character. Thus, in Papyrus No.
10,016, we see the lion and the unicorn playing a game of draughts, a
fox playing a double pipe while animals of the gazelle class strut in
front of him, a cat driving geese, and a cat presenting a palm branch to
a mouse which is seated on a chair and holding a lotus. Behind the chair
is another mouse bearing a fan and a bag with toilet requisites (see
pages 27-30). In the reign of Ȧmen-ḥetep IV, about B.C. 1420, there was a
revolt against the conventional forms of painting and sculpture approved
by the priests. For about twenty-five years, new designs and new colours
were introduced, but they did not find favour among the people generally,
and, when the king died, traditionalism promptly re-asserted itself,
and the new capital which he founded near the modern village of Tell
al-Amarna fell into ruin, and its splendours were forgotten.
[Illustration: Queen Tetȧ-Kharṭ, about B.C. 1600.
[No. 187, Wall-case 102, Third Egyptian Room.]]
The sculptured reliefs of the IVth and Vth dynasties, and the =statues=
and =portrait figures= were in beauty and fidelity rarely equalled in
later times, and certainly never surpassed. The chief employers of
both painter and sculptor in the later dynasties were the priests, who
required statues of gods and kings for the temples; massive strength, an
expression of impassibility, and close adherence to existing models were
the traditional characteristics of such works. With private employers the
case was different, for they demanded of the sculptor portrait figures
which should be representations of their friends at once faithful and
pleasing. Among early portrait figures of fine work in the British
Museum may be mentioned the =ivory figure of a king=, wearing a robe
of elaborate pattern (Table-case No. 197, in the Third Egyptian Room;
see page 24, No. 7); the statue of the official =Nefer-hi= of the IIIrd
dynasty (No. 150, Wall-case 99, Third Egyptian Room); the statue of
=Betchmes=, of the IIIrd dynasty (No. 3, in the Egyptian Vestibule, see
page 110), and the statue of =Ȧn-kheft-ka=, of the IVth dynasty, (Bay 1,
No. 33, in the Northern Egyptian Gallery, see page 109).
[Illustration: Head of a colossal statue of Ȧmen-ḥetep III, B.C. 1450.
[Northern Egyptian Gallery, Bay 4, No. 416.]]
[Illustration: PLATE XII.
Head of a stone figure of a priestess of the XVIIIth dynasty.
[From the cast, No. 38,430, Wall-case 102, Third Egyptian Room.]]
[Illustration: PLATE XIII.
Limestone seated figures of Khā-em-Uast and his wife.
XIXth dynasty.
[No. 41,603, Wall-case 105, Third Egyptian Room.]]
On the second shelf of Wall-cases 99-109 in the Third Egyptian Room
is exhibited a typical series of =portrait figures= in stone which
illustrate the work of the period between the IIIrd dynasty and the Roman
Period. Special attention may be given to the =head of an official= (No.
186) in crystalline limestone; the figure of =Queen Tetȧ-Kharṭ=, a wife
of Ȧāḥmes I, B.C. 1600 (No. 187, see page 113); the portion of the head
of a figure, the “heretic king,” =Ȧmen-ḥetep IV=, or Khu-en-Ȧten, B.C.
1420 (No. 212); the figure of =Queen Ȧmenȧrṭās=, of the XXVth dynasty,
B.C. 700 (No. 232); the seated figures of Khā-em-Uast and his wife
(Wall-case 105, Third Egyptian Room; see =Plate XIII=); the seated figure
of Ḥarua, one of the officials of Ȧmenȧrṭās (No. 234); the two figures
of officials of the Roman Period (Nos. 269 and 270); and the head of a
priestess (see =Plate XII=).
[Illustration: Statue of Isis, holding a figure of Osiris. Dedicated by
Shashanq, a high official.
Ptolemaïc Period.
[Southern Egyptian Gallery, Bay 28, No. 964.]]
In the Northern and Southern Egyptian Galleries among the finest examples
of large statues may be mentioned the three grey granite =statues
of Usertsen III=, B.C. 2330, each of which represents the king at a
different period of his life (Nos. 158, 159, 160; see =Plate XXV=); the
dark granite =head of Ȧmen-em-ḥāt III=, of the XIIth dynasty (No. 774;
see =Plate XXVI=); the red granite statue of =Sekhem-uatch-taui-Rā=,
a king of the XIIIth dynasty (No. 276, =Plate XXVII=); the =head
of Thothmes III=, B.C. 1550 (No. 360; =Plate XXXI=); the heads of
=Ȧmen-ḥetep III=, B.C. 1450 (Nos. 416, 417); the white limestone statues
of an official and his wife, of very fine work (No. 565); and the granite
statue of Isis holding a figure of Osiris between her wings (No. 964).
The statues and portrait figures of the latter part of the XVIIIth, XIXth
and XXth dynasties lack the fidelity to nature of those of the Ancient
and Middle Empires, and it is clear that about B.C. 1200 both statues and
figures were kept in stock by funerary masons, who merely added the names
of deceased persons to them after they were sold.
Under the Saïte kings of the XXVIth dynasty a =Renaissance= took place,
and for a short time painters, sculptors, and scribes modelled their
works on examples drawn chiefly from the monuments of the Ancient Empire.
CHAPTER VI.
THE KING AND HIS CHIEF OFFICERS OF STATE AND SUBJECTS. MILITARY SERVICE.
The =King= of Egypt was absolute master of the country, which had been
given to him by the gods, and of every man, woman, and child, and of
everything in it from one end to the other. He was the son of Ḥeru-ur,
_i.e._, Horus the Great, the oldest of all the gods of Egypt, whose
attributes were, at a later period, usurped by Rā, the Sun-god, and was
declared to be of the very substance and essence of the god. He was
believed to be a god, and was worshipped as a god, and his statues and
figures were placed among the statues of the gods, and with them received
the adoration of men. His word on any subject was final, his authority
limitless, in his person he united the intelligence and strength of all
beings in heaven and on earth; men lived by his grace only, and at a word
from him they were slain. In short, the Egyptians were serfs and bondmen
of the king, the counterpart, image and symbol of the god of heaven.
He possessed =five= great =names= or titles: 1. A =Horus name=, as the
descendant of Horus. 2. A =Nebti name=, as representative of Nekhebit and
Uatchit, the great goddesses of the South and North. 3. A =Horus of gold
name=. The blood of the sun-god was supposed to be made of gold, and as
the divine blood ran in the king’s veins, a “name of gold” was given to
him. 4. A =Suten Bȧt name=, as king of the South (_Suten_) and King of
the North (_Bȧt_). 5. A =Son of Rā name=, or personal name of the king.
Thus, the five names of Usertsen III were:
Horus name, NETER KHEPERU. This was placed in a _serekh_ thus:—
[Illustration: 𓅃𓇴𓋹𓉘𓊹𓆣𓅱𓊂]
The Horus name is sometimes called the “banner name”; the
_serekh_, however, is not a banner, but a representation of a
building of a funerary character.
Nebti name, NETER MESTU 𓅒𓊹𓄠𓅱𓏏.
Horus of gold name, ĀNKH KHEPER 𓅉𓋹𓆣.
Suten Bȧt name, KHĀ-KAU-RĀ 𓆥𓍹𓇳𓈍𓂓𓂓𓂓𓍺.
Son of Rā name, USERTSEN 𓅭𓇳𓍹𓄊𓋴𓂋𓏏𓊃𓈖𓍺.
The oval in which the fourth and fifth names are placed, 𓍷, is called
in Egyptian _Shennu_, and is commonly known as the “cartouche.” It was
originally circular in form, 𓍶, like a signet ring, and Besh, a king of
the IInd dynasty, appears to have been the first to use the cartouche.
Another common title of the king was PER-ĀA 𓉐𓉻, _i.e._, “Great House,”
meaning the “house in which all men live,” or the “Asylum of the
Universe,” “Sublime Porte,” etc., which we find in the Bible under
the form of “Pharaoh.” The king being god never died, and he owed the
property of immortality which he possessed to the “fluid of life” 𓎃𓈖𓋹,
_sa en ānkh_, which he obtained from Rā before his birth, for the god was
believed to become incarnate from time to time, and to consort with queen
after queen, so that his son might always sit on the throne of Egypt.
The statues of Rā, being inhabited by his doubles, were endowed with the
“fluid of life,” and this they transmitted to their human counterpart,
the king, by resting their hands upon his head, or by drawing them over
the back of his head and down his back. The king performed the ceremonies
of the “divine cult” daily, and as a result he drew from the god each day
a new supply of the “fluid of life,” which justified him in adopting the
title “Endowed with life, like Rā, for ever,” 𓏙𓋹𓇳𓏤𓏇𓆓𓏏𓇾.
The =Queen= was called either the “woman of the god,” 𓊹𓈞𓏏, or the “woman
of the king,” 𓇓𓈞𓏏, but she possessed several other titles.
[Illustration: Seated figure of Qen-nefer, a prince and overseer of the
palace, about B.C. 1450.
[Central Saloon, No. 556.]]
The official to whom the king entrusted the administration of the country
was called =Erpā= 𓂋𓊪𓂝, and of almost equal authority was the =Tchat=
𓅷𓏏𓏤, whose equivalent in modern times is the Ḳâḍî, or =Judge=. Other
high offices were =Chief Councillor=, 𓃥𓉪, the =Town Governor=, 𓄓𓊖𓏏𓏤,
the =Chancellor=, 𓆤𓏏𓋩, and, of course, the chiefs of the nomes, the
officers of the Treasury, Army, Works Department, Police and Law Courts,
and Temples, each of whom had his own staff. Titles often bestowed by the
king were =Ḥā= 𓄂𓂝, Prince, and =Smer= 𓋴𓍋, =Smer-uāt= 𓋴𓍋𓌡𓏏𓏤, which
mean something like “friend,” and “only friend.” Picturesque titles
appear occasionally; thus one official calls himself “the eyes of the
king in the South, and his ears in the North,” “the eyes of the king
in Thebes,” etc. In the =priesthood= were the following grades: 1. The
_neter ḥen_, or servant of the god 𓊹𓍛; 2. The _tef neter_, father of the
god 𓊹𓏏𓆑𓀀; 3. The _āb_, libationer 𓃂𓈗𓀀; 4. The _Kher ḥeb_, or “Lector,”
or “precentor” 𓌨𓂋𓎛𓃀𓎱𓀀, etc. There were several kinds of minor priests,
_e.g._, the _ḥen ka_, or priest of the Ka, the _sem_, or _setem_, the
_ȧmm ȧs_, the _ȧmm khent_, and the ministrants in general. The title of
the =high priest of Memphis= was “Ur-kherp-ḥem,” _i.e._, “Great Chief of
the hammer,” in allusion to his being priest of Ptaḥ, the Blacksmith-god
of Memphis; that of the =high priest of Heliopolis= was “Ur-maau,”
_i.e._, “great seer”; and that of the =high priest of Thebes= was “Chief
prophet of Ȧmen-Rā.” Among the civilians the =Scribes= played the most
prominent part in the administration of the country, and in all periods
both “royal scribes” and “scribes” held many high offices, especially
in connection with the Treasury, and with institutions which possessed
large properties, such as the great temples of Heliopolis, Memphis, Saïs,
Bubastis, Abydos and Thebes.
[Illustration: Statues of Māḥu, a director of Works, and Sebta, a
priestess of Hathor, B.C. 1350.
[Central Saloon, No. 637.]]
=Military service.=—The Egyptian was neither a fighting man nor a soldier
by nature, and except for a few comparatively short periods in her
history, Egypt never had an =Army= in the sense in which the word is
used by Western Nations. The Egyptian hated military service, and in any
conflict which resembled war he generally ran away. When a hostile force
threatened the country, the head of each nome collected a number of men
from his district, and armed them as well as he could, and then sent his
contingent to some place appointed by the king. Individual nobles also,
no doubt, sent companies of men more or less armed from their estates to
fight the king’s battles. The peasant, or _fellaḥ_, was then, as now, a
formidable opponent in a fight, when armed with a stout stick, or club,
especially when he could fight under cover or behind a wall; but anything
like organized resistance terrified him, and rendered him useless. On the
other hand, the native of the Sûdân was a very fine fighter, and whenever
it was possible Pharaoh stiffened his troops with regiments of Blacks.
Thus, if we may believe the account of Unȧ, the commander-in-chief of
Pepi, a king of the VIth dynasty, his army contained Blacks from every
great province of the Sûdân, and numbered “many times ten thousand.” In
the Asiatic campaigns, which produced such great spoil for Egypt, the
organizers of these wars, which are better termed “military raids,” and
the finest fighters in them were either Blacks, or of Sûdânî origin.
Egypt had only need of soldiers in the strict sense of the word when
it was necessary to suppress sudden rebellions in the provinces, or to
compel tributary kings to pay what was due from them, or to provide
escorts to Government trading expeditions. In times of peace the troops
of the militia laid down their clubs, bows, daggers, and spears, and
worked at their trades or cultivated the fields. Military exercises,
drillings, manœuvres, etc., there were none.
The Predynastic Egyptian warrior armed himself with a short, stout
stick; later it was weighted at one end with a piece of flint or stone,
and so became a kind of =club=. A flat piece of flint, or stone, with
a roughly-formed cutting edge, bound to a stick by thongs of leather,
served as an =axe=. Double-headed axes were also known, and =knives=,
=spear-heads=, arrow-heads, etc., were commonly used.
The =equipment= of the soldier of the Ancient Empire was simple. He wore
a sort of skull =cap=, of leather(?), with a feather or two stuck in
the top; he fought with a =club= 𓌉, or =mace=, and a =bow= 𓌔, carrying
his =flint-tipped arrows= in a leather quiver slung over his back, and
he caught the blows and arrows of his foe on a large =leathern shield=,
which was sometimes ornamented with the badge of his master or his
family. At a later period he wore a =leathern shirt= to protect his body,
and he added to his arms a long =spear=, a knife, or =dagger=, with a
curved blade 𓌛𓑀, and sometimes a =battle-axe=. The equipment of the
mercenaries of a still later period differed in many details from that
of the native Egyptian. (For examples of bows, arrows, daggers, spears,
etc., see Table-case B in the Third Egyptian Room.)
The =horse= and =chariot= were unused in Egypt before the kings of
the XVIIIth dynasty began to make conquests in Western Asia. At a
comparatively early period the Egyptians began to fortify their towns
with walls and strong gates, and in the XIIth dynasty King Usertsen III
erected a series of =forts= in the Second Cataract to prevent the Nubians
from descending the river and laying Egypt waste. One strong fort was
built near Buhen (Wâdî Ḥalfah), another on the island now called Jazîrat
al-Malik, one at Semnah, and another exactly opposite at Kummah. The
walls were built of mud bricks, many feet thick, and long slopes cased
with stone were built against them. Within each enclosure were series of
chambers for storehouses and barracks, and at one corner a small temple,
dedicated to the chief god of the district. Another series of forts was
built on the frontier between the north-east line of the Delta and Syria,
generally of great strength.
The geographical position of Egypt made it unnecessary for her to
possess a =navy=, and, moreover, the peasants were as little fitted to
become sailors as soldiers. The most important sea-fight in which the
Egyptians took part was the engagement in which Rameses III (B.C. 1200,
or later) vanquished the confederation of Libyan tribes. This king built
war-ships, and manned them with crews from the seafaring peoples of the
Mediterranean, and he succeeded in gaining a signal victory by sea and
land over his enemies.
CHAPTER VII.
EGYPTIAN RELIGION. EARLY BELIEF IN SPIRITS, FETISHES, COMPANIES OF GODS.
THE WORD FOR GOD AND “GOD.” LIST OF GODS. POLYTHEISM. ONENESS OF GOD.
LEGENDS OF THE GODS. OSIRIS AND THE RESURRECTION. THE JUDGMENT. THE OTHER
WORLD. DOCTRINE OF RETRIBUTION. AMULETS.
=Predynastic Religion.=—From the evidence derived from a number of
Predynastic graves it is perfectly clear that the Predynastic Egyptians
believed in a future life; for otherwise they never would have buried
with the dead food and flint weapons, etc., for the chase in the Other
World. Whether they believed that the future life would be eternal cannot
be said; but they certainly hoped that it would resemble the life on this
earth.
=Dynastic.=—The religion of the ancient Egyptians was of African origin,
and in the earliest times had much in common with that of many of the
peoples and tribes who live in Equatorial Africa at the present day.
Earth, air, sea and sky were believed to be filled with spirits, some
of whom were occupied in carrying on the works of nature, and others
in aiding or injuring man upon earth. Every object, both animate and
inanimate, was inhabited by a spirit, which could assume any form it
pleased, and occupy the body of any man, woman, quadruped, bird, fish,
insect, reptile, tree, etc. The incarnations of certain of these spirits
became gods at a very early period, _e.g._, the hippopotamus,[19]
crocodile, lion, bull, ram, dog-headed ape, dog, wolf, jackal, ichneumon,
hawk, vulture, ibis, swallow, dove, and heron, certain kinds of snakes,
uraeus, frog, beetle, grasshopper, mantis, and several kinds of fish.
All the above were regarded as powers of good from the earliest to the
latest times. On the other hand, certain animals, _e.g._, gazelle, the
animal which is the symbol of Set, 𓃩, or 𓃫, the hyaena, the lynx, the
scorpion, the turtle, were incarnations of powers of evil. The heavenly
bodies were regarded as powers of good, probably, in the earliest times;
but the scorching heat of the sun, lightning, hurricanes, storms, flood,
darkness, mist and fog were regarded as manifestations of spirits hostile
to man.
In addition, the primitive Egyptians fashioned symbols of spirits, much
in the same way as the native of Central Africa makes “fetishes.”[20]
All these they worshipped because they admired some quality or attribute
in them, or because they feared them; and the religion of the earliest
period consisted of the performance of rites and ceremonies which had for
their object the propitiation of them. Men gave gifts to the incarnations
of the spirits to persuade them to withhold the evils which they might
inflict upon them, and to protect them from every calamity; moreover,
they appealed to them as possessing the same feelings and passions as
human beings. The dead were assumed to enjoy a renewed existence in
the Other World, probably with benevolent spirits; it is quite certain
that this belief was current among the primitive Egyptians, at least
among those who lived during the latter half of the Neolithic Period.
Every district and every large city or town had its own spirit or object
of worship, and most of the gods of Egypt of the Dynastic Period were
selected from them; often, no doubt, their names were changed, and their
attributes added to.
At a very early period an attempt was made to group the gods into
families containing husband, wife, and son; these are usually called
=triads=, examples of which are: Ȧmen-Rā, Mut and Khensu at Thebes;
Ba-neb-Ṭeṭ, Ḥāt-meḥit and Ḥeru-pa-kharṭ at Mendes; Ptaḥ, Sekhet and
I-em-ḥetep at Memphis. Another attempt to group the gods resulted in the
=Ennead= or =Company= of nine or more gods.
[Illustration: Ȧmen-Rā. Ȧmsu or Menu. Ȧmset. Anubis. Ȧsȧr (Osiris). Ȧsȧr
(Osiris).
Ȧsȧr-Ḥāp (Serapis). Ȧtmu. Bennu. Bes. Ḥāpi (Nile-god).
Ḥāpi. Horus. Ḥeru-pa-kharṭ (Harpokrates). Kheperȧ. Khnemu. Khensu.
Menthu-Rā. Nefer-Tem. Ptaḥ. Ptaḥ-Seker. Qebḥsennuf.
Rā-Ḥeru-Khu (Rā-Harmakhis). Reshpu. Reshpu. Seb (Ḳeb). Sebek.
Seker. Set. Ṭeṭ. Teḥuti (Thoth). Ṭuamutef.
Ȧnit. Ānthȧt. Ānqet. Ȧst (Isis). Ḥet-Ḥeru (Hathor).
Ḥet-Ḥeru (Hathor). Ḥet-Ḥeru (Hathor). Qeṭesh. Maāt. Menḥet.
Mert. Mut. Nebt-ḥet (Nephthys). Nebt-ḥet (Nephthys). Nekhebit.
Net (Neith). Nut. Renenet. Satet. Sesheta (Sefekh-ābui).
Sekhet. Serqet. Taurt (Thoueris). Uatchit. Urt-Ḥekau.]
At Heliopolis, the On of the Bible, the priests proclaimed the existence
of three Companies of the gods. The first Company was called the “Great”
𓊹𓊹𓊹𓊹𓊹𓊹𓊹𓊹𓊹𓉻𓏏, the second the “Little” 𓊹𓊹𓊹𓊹𓊹𓊹𓊹𓊹𓊹𓅪𓏏, and the third had no
special title; these Companies represented the gods of heaven, earth,
and the Other World respectively. When all three companies were invoked
they were represented thus: 𓊹𓊹𓊹𓊹𓊹𓊹𓊹𓊹𓊹𓊹𓊹𓊹𓊹𓊹𓊹𓊹𓊹𓊹𓊹𓊹𓊹𓊹𓊹𓊹𓊹𓊹𓊹. The gods of
the Great Company were: Temu, Shu, Tefnut, Seb, Nut, Osiris, Isis, Set,
Nephthys; Khenti-Ȧmenti, Rā, Horus, and Uatchit were sometimes added. The
gods of the Little Company were: Rā, Ȧm-Ȧnnu, Ȧm-Āntchet, Ȧm-Ḥet-Serqet,
Ȧm-neter-ḥet, Ȧm-ḥetch-paār, Ȧm-Saḥ, Ȧm-Ṭep, Ȧm-Ḥet-ur-Rā, Ȧm-Unnu-resu,
and Ȧm-Unnu-meḥt.
The common Egyptian word for God and god is NETER 𓈖𓏏𓂋, which is
symbolized by the sign 𓊹; goddess is NETERT 𓈖𓏏𓂋𓏏𓆇; the plurals are
NETERU 𓊹𓊹𓊹 or 𓈖𓏏𓂋𓅱𓀭𓏪 “gods,” and NETERIT 𓈖𓏏𓂋𓇌𓏏𓆗𓏪 “goddesses.” The
original meaning of the word NETER is unknown, but in the Dynastic Period
it probably meant “high, exalted, sublime, divine, godlike,” etc.
The following are some of the principal gods and goddesses, and the
visitor will find an unrivalled series of figures of most of them in
bronze, wood, stone, etc., exhibited in Wall-cases 119-132 in the Third
Egyptian Room. Full descriptions will be found in the _Guide to the Third
and Fourth Egyptian Rooms_, pp. 116-168:—
ȦSȦR, Osiris, 𓁹𓊨𓀭, the man-god who rose from the dead, was
deified, and became the king of the Other World and judge of
the Dead.
ȦST, Isis, 𓊨𓏏𓆇, the sister-wife of Osiris.
SET 𓋴𓏏𓈜𓁣, the principle of Evil, and opponent of Osiris.
NEBT-ḤET, Nephthys, 𓏏𓆇𓁐, the wife of Set.
ȦNPU, Anubis, 𓇋𓈖𓊪𓅱, the Dog-god, or Jackal-god, son of Set.
ȦP-UAT 𓄋𓊪𓏴𓈐𓏏𓏦, the Wolf-god, a friend and companion of
Osiris.
ḤERU, Horus, 𓅃𓏤𓀭, existed in several forms, _e.g._, Horus
the Elder (Arouëris), Horus the Blind, Horus the Child
(Harpokrates), Horus, son of Osiris, Horus, son of Isis, etc.
NU 𓏍𓇯𓀭, god of the primeval watery mass out of which the world
was made.
ḤĀPI 𓎛𓂝𓊪𓏭𓈘𓈗𓀭, the Nile-god.
KHEPERȦ 𓐍𓊪𓆣𓂋𓇋𓀭, the creator of the universe whose dwelling was
Nu.
TEḤUTI, Thoth, 𓅝𓏏𓏭𓀭, who created the world and all things
in it by a word.
KHNEMU 𓎸𓅓𓅱𓀭, who assisted in carrying out the work of creation.
PTAḤ 𓊪𓏏𓎛𓀭, who assisted Khnemu in the work of creation.
RĀ 𓂋𓂝𓇳𓏤𓀭, the Sun-god.
SEB (ḲEB) 𓅬𓃀, the Earth-god.
SHU 𓆄𓅱𓀭, the god of the air.
ḤET-ḤERU, Hathor, 𓉡, a sky-goddess, who existed in seven forms.
NUT 𓏌𓏏𓇯𓁐, a sky-goddess.
TEFNUT 𓏏𓆑𓏌𓏏𓁐, a rain-goddess.
NEKHEBIT 𓇑𓏌𓏏𓁐, the great goddess of the South.
UATCHIT 𓇅𓇌𓏏𓆇𓁐, the great goddess of the North.
NET, Neith, 𓋋𓏏𓆇𓁐, the self-created goddess of Saïs, who
existed in four forms.
BAST 𓎰𓏏𓆇𓁐, the great goddess of Bubastis.
MENU, or ȦMSU 𓋉𓊾𓀭, god of virility and generation.
BES 𓃀𓋴𓁲, ⎫
ĀNQET 𓂝𓈖𓈎𓏏𓆇𓆗, ⎪
SATIT 𓄝𓏏𓏭𓆗, ⎪ gods of the Sûdân.
ṬEṬUN 𓂧𓂧𓃹𓈖𓀭, ⎪
MERUL 𓌻𓅱𓏩𓃭, or MENRUIL 𓈘𓈖𓂋𓏲𓏭𓊹. ⎭
TEMU 𓏏𓍃𓅓𓅱, the Man-god, who always appears in human form.
ḤĀP 𓎛𓐑𓊪𓀭, ⎫ The divine sons of Horus, son of Osiris,
MESTHȦ 𓐝𓊃𓍘𓇋𓀭, ⎪ who assisted their father in performing
QEBḤSENNUF 𓏁𓌣𓏪𓆑𓀭, ⎪ the ceremonies connected with the
ṬUAMUTEF 𓇼𓄿𓅐𓏏𓆑𓀭, ⎭ mummifying and burial of Osiris.
ȦMEN 𓇋𓏠𓈖𓀭, or ȦMEN-RĀ 𓇋𓏠𓈖𓂋𓂝𓇳𓏤𓀭, the great god of Thebes.
MUT 𓅐𓏏𓆇𓁐, the female counterpart of Ȧmen-Rā.
KHENSU 𓐍𓈖𓇓𓅱𓀭, the son of Ȧmen and Mut. Like Horus he had seven
forms.
IUSĀASET 𓂻𓏲𓊃𓂝𓄿𓋴𓏏𓆇𓁐, a goddess of Heliopolis.
I-EM-ḤETEP (Imouthis) 𓇍𓅓𓊵𓏏𓊪𓀭, a deified physician of Memphis.
SEKER 𓊃𓎡𓂋𓀭, god of the dead of Memphis.
NEFER-TEM 𓄤𓆑𓂋𓏏𓍃𓅓𓀭, a god of Memphis. The lotus was his symbol.
MAĀT 𓌷𓂝𓏏𓆇𓁦, goddess of wisdom, right, truth, law, order, etc.
SESHETA 𓋇𓏏𓆇𓁐, goddess of literature.
MESKHENIT 𓄠𓋴𓐍𓈖𓏏𓈜𓁐, goddess of birth.
RENENIT 𓂋𓈖𓈖𓏏𓆇𓁐, goddess of fertility, the harvest, etc.
MEḤ-URIT 𓎖𓎛𓅨𓂋𓏏, a very ancient sky-goddess.
SEKHET 𓋴𓐍𓏏𓌂𓁐, a fire-goddess, the female counterpart of Ptaḥ.
TA-TENEN 𓇾𓏤𓏏𓈇𓇑𓇑𓈖𓈖, a very ancient earth-god.
MENTHU 𓏠𓈖𓍿𓅱𓀭, an ancient war-god.
ȦTEN 𓇋𓏏𓈖𓇳, the god of the solar disk.
FOREIGN GODS AND GODDESSES.
ĀNTHȦT 𓂝𓈖𓍘𓇋𓏏𓆇𓆗, a goddess of Syrian origin.
ĀNTHRETHȦ 𓂝𓈖𓍿𓂋𓏤𓍘𓇋𓆗, goddess of the Kheta.
ĀSTHȦRETHIT 𓂝𓊃𓍿𓇋𓂋𓍿𓏏𓆇𓆗, =Ashtoreth=, a goddess of Syrian
origin.
QEṬESH 𓊧𓂧𓈚𓆗, goddess of Syrian origin.
KENT 𓎡𓈖𓏏𓆇𓆗, a goddess of Syrian origin.
ĀASITH 𓉻𓂝𓏛𓋴𓏭𓍘𓆗, a goddess of the Eastern Desert.
BĀIRTHȦ 𓃀𓂝𓏭𓂋𓏤𓍘𓇋, _i.e._, Beltis, counterpart of Ba’al Sephôn.
BĀR 𓃀𓂝𓂋𓃩, _i.e._, “=Baal=,” a Syrian war-god.
RESHPU 𓂋𓈚𓊪𓅱𓀭, god of the lightning and thunderbolt.
SUTEKH 𓇓𓅱𓏏𓐍, one of the chief gods of the Kheta and Syrians.
ANIMAL-GODS AND GODDESSES, ETC.
ḤĀP 𓐑𓊪𓃒, the =Apis Bull=.
MER-UR 𓅨𓂋𓉕𓃒, the =Mnevis Bull=.
BAKHA 𓃀𓄡, the =Bachis Bull=.
BA 𓃝, the Ram-god.
SEBEK 𓋴𓃀𓎡𓆋, the Crocodile god.
TA-URT 𓏏𓄿𓅨𓂋𓏏𓆗 ⎫
RERIT 𓂋𓂋𓏏𓏲𓄛 ⎪ The Hippopotamus-goddesses.
ȦPIT 𓇋𓊪𓏏𓄛 ⎪
SHEPUIT 𓈚𓊪𓏲𓏏𓆇 ⎭
MA-ḤES 𓌳𓎛𓎿𓋴𓁻, the Lion-god; lion-goddesses were numerous,
_e.g._, Sekhet, Pekhth, Tefnut, etc.
MAFṬET 𓌳𓄿𓆑𓂧𓏏, the Lynx-goddess.
BAST 𓎯𓏏𓆇, the Cat-goddess; the word for “cat” was _Mȧu_
𓏇𓇋𓅱𓃠.
ȦNPU 𓇋𓈖𓊪𓅱, the Dog, or Jackal-god.
APUAT 𓄋𓈐, the Wolf-god.
KHATRU 𓆼𓄿𓏏𓂋𓅱, the Ichneumon-god.
The following =birds= were sacred: The phoenix, _Bennu_ 𓃀𓈖𓏌𓅱𓅣; the
vulture, _Nerȧu_ 𓈖𓂋𓇋𓅱𓅐; the hawk, _Bȧk_ 𓃀𓇋𓎡𓅄; the hawk of gold, _Bȧk en
nub_ 𓃀𓇋𓎡𓅄𓈖𓋞𓈒𓏦; the divine hawk, _Bȧk netri_, 𓃀𓇋𓎡𓅄𓊹𓏏𓂋𓏭𓏜; the ibis,
_Habû_ 𓉔𓄿𓃀𓅱𓅝; the swallow, _Ment_ 𓏠𓈖𓏏𓅨; the goose, 𓅬, of which there
were several kinds; etc.
The following =reptiles= and =insects= were sacred: the turtle, _Āpesh_
𓂝𓊪𓈚𓆉, or _Sheta_ 𓈚𓏏𓄿𓆉; the snake, _Sa-ta_ 𓅭𓇾𓏤𓈇; the scorpion, _Serk_
𓋴𓂋𓎡; the _Āpshait_ beetle, 𓂝𓊪𓆷𓄿𓇌𓆤; the “praying mantis”, _Ābit_
𓍋𓃀𓇋𓇋𓏏𓅬; the grasshopper, _Saneḥemu_, 𓅭𓈖𓈞𓅓𓅱𓆧; _Kheprerȧ_ the beetle,
_Scarabaeus sacer_, 𓆣𓂋𓂋𓇋𓅬.
The following =fish= were sacred: The _Ȧbṭu_ 𓋁𓃀𓂧𓅱𓆟; the _Ȧnt_ 𓇋𓆛𓈖𓏏𓆟,
which announced the rise of the Nile; the _Āḥa_ 𓂚𓄿𓆟; the _Āṭ_ 𓂝𓂧𓆟;
the _Utu_ 𓎘𓅱𓆟; the _Meḥit_ 𓎖𓎛𓇌𓏏𓆟; the _Nār_ 𓈖𓂝𓂋𓆟; etc. Classical
writers mention the Oxyrhynchus, the Phagrus, the Latus, the Lepidotus,
the Silurus, the Maeotes, etc., but authorities differ in their
identifications.
=Number of the gods.=—As every district, city, town, and village
possessed a god, with a female counterpart and a son, and also a being
of evil, or devil, to say nothing of the creatures who, in modern times,
would be called vaguely “spirits,” or “fairies,” it follows that the
“gods” of the Egyptians must have been very numerous. The names of a
great many have been lost, but about 200 gods are mentioned in the
Pyramid Texts, about 480 in the Theban Recension of the Book of the Dead,
and about 1,200 in the various works which deal with the Other World; a
total of about 2,200 names has been noted. The Egyptians tried to reduce
the large number of their gods by declaring that their gods were merely
_forms_ of the great Sun-god Rā, who was said to have “created the names
of his members, which became the gods who are in the following of Rā”
(Book of the Dead, xvii, 11). The Egyptian system of =Polytheism= (not
Pantheism) appears to have been well suited to the early conditions of
the country, but several facts make it certain that attempts were made by
the priests to give their religion a distinctly monotheistic character.
The results of their endeavours in this respect find expression in many
texts. Under the Ancient Empire we read in the Pyramid Texts of a God who
was the lord of heaven, who gave life to the dead, and who was entirely
different in every way from the “gods.” In Moral Precepts we have such
phrases as: “The things which God doeth cannot be known.” “The eating of
bread is according to the plan of God,” _i.e._, a man’s food comes to him
through the Providence of God. “Labour in the field which God hath given
thee.” “God loveth obedience and hateth disobedience.” “Verily a good son
is the gift of God.” “God is the righteous judge.”[21] “Wrong not thy
mother lest she lift up her hands to God, and He hear her complaints
(and punish thee).” “The multiplying of words is an abomination to the
sanctuary of God.” And the official Paḥeri says in his Biography (line
42): “I never told lies to another man, for I knew that God dwelt among
men, and I recognised Him”:—
𓂜𓆓𓂧𓇋𓎼𓂋𓍅𓅪𓏥𓂋𓎡𓇌𓀀𓂋𓐍𓏛𓎡𓅱𓀀𓊹𓏤𓇋𓏶𓏭𓂋𓍿𓀀𓁐𓏪𓋷𓄿𓀁𓇋𓇓𓅱
In funerary texts the god referred to may possibly be Osiris, god and
judge of the dead, but in the Moral Precepts quoted above this is
impossible, and it follows that the Egyptians believed in a God Who was
wholly apart from the “Companies of Gods,” and in His wise, inscrutable,
and kindly Providence.
The doctrine of =Oneness=, or =Unity=, we find in connection with the
great God who created the universe and all that is in it, by whatsoever
name he be called, Rā, or Tem, or Kheperȧ, or Ptaḥ, or Khnemu, or
Ȧten. Thus Rā is the “Lord of heaven, lord of earth, maker of beings
celestial, and of beings terrestrial, the One God, who came into being
in primeval time, maker of the world, creator of men, maker of the sky,
creator of the Nile, fashioner of whatsoever is in the waters, and
creator of their life, maker of mountains, creator of men, and women, and
beasts, and cattle, and the heavens and the earth” (Book of the Dead,
Chapter CLXXII). In another passage it is said of this same god: “He is
the divine matter which produced the Two Companies of Gods, every god
came into being through him, God One alone, 𓌡𓏤𓂝𓌡𓏤𓂝𓏲𓏭𓀭. He made what
is when the earth began in primeval time, his births are hidden, his
transformations are multitudinous, and his similitude cannot be known.”
It has been argued that the Egyptian idea of the Oneness of a god is
a totally different thing from =Monotheism=, but, taking the facts as
they stand, we are justified in saying that when the Egyptian declared
that his god was One, _neter uā_ 𓊹𓀭𓌡𓏤𓂝, his meaning was identical with
that expressed by the Hebrew in the words, “The Lord our God _is_ one”
(Deuteronomy vi, 4), and by the Arab in his declaration, “God, He is one”
(Kur’ân, _Surah_ cxii).
The principal religious beliefs of the Egyptians may be summarized thus:
The =Creation=.—In the beginning there existed an immense mass of water
wherein lived the god Nu. He felt the desire to create this universe, and
his heart, or intelligence, who was called Thoth, spake a word expressing
this desire, and the world came into being. The first act of creation
was the appearance of the sun from out of the water; the light separated
the heavens from the earth, and the sky was placed upon four pillars
𓉽𓉽𓉽𓉽, which marked the cardinal points.
[Illustration: The god Khnemu fashioning a man on a potter’s wheel which
he works with his foot. Behind stands Thoth, marking the years of his
life on a notched palm branch.]
=Creation of gods.=—According to the priests of On, the god Kheperȧ, a
form of Rā, who was self-begotten and self-produced, fashioned a god
and a goddess out of the matter of his own body, and these became the
parents of a number of other gods and goddesses, _e.g._, Osiris and
Isis, Set and Nephthys, Horus and Anubis, etc. The priests of Hermopolis
declared that Thoth was the primeval god, and that the gods he created
were Nu and Nut, Ḥeḥu and Ḥeḥut, Kekui and Kekuit, Ḳerḥ and Ḳerḥit.
The first pair represent the watery mass out of which everything came;
the second, indefinite time, or eternity; the third, darkness; and the
fourth, night. The priests of Saïs taught that their goddess Net (Neith)
was self-begotten and self-produced, that she was the mother of Rā, the
Sun-god, and at the same time a virgin-goddess.
=Creation of men.=—According to a very old legend, mankind was divided
into four races: 1. RETH, or REMT, _i.e._, “Men,” 𓂋𓍿𓀀𓁐𓏪; these were the
Egyptians. 2. ĀAMU 𓌙𓅓𓅱𓏪, or the peoples of the Eastern Desert. 3. THEMEḤU
𓍿𓎖𓅱𓏪, _i.e._, the Libyans. 4. NEḤESU 𓅘𓎛𓋴𓅱𓏪, _i.e._, the black and brown
peoples, and Negroes and Negroids, of the Sûdân. The Egyptians or “Men,”
were formed out of the tears which fell from the Eye of Rā; these dropped
upon the members of his body and then turned into men and women. The
Libyans came into being through some act of the Sun-god in connection
with his Eye, and the Āamu and the Neḥesu were descended irregularly from
Rā. Another legend declared that man was made out of potters’ mud on a
wheel by Khnemu, the ram-headed god of Philae.
=Destruction of mankind.=—After Rā had been reigning for a considerable
time, men and women began to speak contemptuously of him, and to
blaspheme him. Rā assembled the gods and took counsel with them, and,
as the result, he sent forth his Eye among mankind in the form of the
goddess Hathor, who destroyed men from off the earth with the exception
of a small company. The goddess Sekhet assisted in the slaughter, and
for several days wandered about Egypt wading in pools of men’s blood.
At length Rā was appeased, and he stopped the work of slaughter; but
he was weary of man, and determined to withdraw himself from the
management of his affairs. After taking further counsel with the gods he
retreated to a newly-constituted portion of heaven, and created there the
=Sekhet-ḥetepet=, or =Elysian Fields=.
According to another legend preserved in the CLXXVth Chapter of the
Book of the Dead (Papyrus of Ani, No. 10,470), a general destruction of
mankind was caused by =the Flood=, which was brought upon the world by
the god Temu, who announced his intention of destroying everything in it,
and of covering the earth with the waters of the primeval ocean Nu. The
flood appears to have begun at Ḥenensu, in Upper Egypt, the Khânês of
Isaiah xxx, 4, and the Herakleopolis of the Greeks, and to have submerged
all Egypt. All life was destroyed, and the only beings who survived were
those who were in the “Boat of Millions of Years,” _i.e._, the Ark of the
Sun-god, with the god Temu. The mutilated state of a large portion of
the text makes it impossible to piece the details together, but it seems
that, after the earth was covered by the Flood, Temu sailed over the
waters to the Island of Flame, and took up his abode there. Subsequently
he was succeeded by Osiris, whose authority was disputed by Set, the god
of evil; but eventually Set was overthrown, and Osiris ruled triumphantly.
The =Legend of Horus and Set=.—In very early times legends were current
concerning the great fight which took place between Horus the Great, the
Sun-god, the god of day, light, life, and of all physical and moral good,
and Set, the god of night, darkness, death, and of all physical and moral
evil. Set succeeded in carrying off the Eye of Horus, _i.e._, the Sun,
and tried to devour it, but the Eye of Horus inflicted a deadly wound on
Set, and cut off and carried away one of his thighs. At length Thoth,
the intelligence of Rā, interfered, and made an arrangement between the
two combatant gods, whereby the day (Horus) was to be a certain length,
and the night (Set) likewise, and neither was to destroy the other.
Because of this decision Thoth was called “Ȧp reḥui,” or “Judge of the
Combatants.” Now the moon was the second, or left, eye of Horus the
Great, and it was much persecuted by Set during fourteen nights of every
month. Each night Set succeeded in cutting off a piece from it, and at
length no moon was left. Thoth, however, made new moons, which he placed
in the sky month by month, and thus frustrated the evil deeds of Set. On
one occasion Set was wandering about the sky in the evening and found
there the crescent, or new moon, which he immediately swallowed, but he
was eventually made to disgorge it by Thoth, who was watching over it.
At a later period, when the moon was identified with Osiris, the enmity
of Set was transferred to Osiris, and the legend entered upon a new
phase; Osiris became the symbol of moral good, and Set of moral evil and
wickedness.
The views held by the Egyptians about Osiris from about B.C. 3800 to
the Roman Period may be thus summarized:—=Legend of Osiris.=—Osiris, in
Egyptian ȦSȦR 𓁹𓊨, was once a king who reigned in the south of Egypt; his
sister-wife was called =Isis=, in Egyptian ȦST 𓊨𓏏, and their son Horus,
in Egyptian ḤERU 𓅃. He did great good to all his people, and taught them
the arts of agriculture, and made good laws for them, and ruled them
justly. Now Osiris had a twin brother called =Set= 𓊃𓏏𓈜, the SÊTH of
Plutarch, who was very jealous of him, and who lost no opportunity of
undermining his authority and reviling him, for he wished to see Osiris
removed from his path, so that he might seize his brother’s throne and
wife. At length, by a stratagem, he managed to kill Osiris, by drowning
him in the Nile. The river, however, carried the dead body of Osiris to
the papyrus swamps in the Delta, where the waters deposited it on the
lower branches of an acacia tree, which grew up round it and concealed
it. Isis discovered, by magical means, where her husband’s body was, and
went to the place and took possession of it. Wishing to visit her son
Horus, so that she might urge him to take vengeance on Set, she hid the
body in a secret spot, and went off to the city of Buto to Horus. During
her absence, Set found the body one night when he was out hunting, and
recognizing it, he tore it into fourteen pieces, which he scattered about
the country. Isis, having heard what Set had done, set out and collected
the portions of the body of Osiris, and wherever she found one of them
she buried it, and built a shrine over it.
[Illustration: Osiris rising from the sarcophagus with “life” in each
hand. On each side are two of the children of Horus.]
Now Isis was a great enchantress, and she learned from Thoth the
knowledge of magical ceremonies and of most potent words of power. She
was able to transform herself into any kind of creature, and to travel
through earth, air, fire, or water with equal ease. Instructed by his
mother, Horus, with the assistance of a number of his “followers,”
performed a series of ceremonies connected with the burial of his father,
which had the effect of raising Osiris from the dead, and of establishing
him as king in Ȧmenti, _i.e._, the “Hidden Place,” or the Other World.
When this was done, Osiris appeared to Horus and urged him to avenge him
on Set, and shortly afterwards a great fight between Horus and Set took
place. Set was defeated and, according to the XVIIth Chapter of the Book
of the Dead, mutilated by Horus, who suffered no injury whatsoever. The
great fight took place near the modern city of Asyûṭ, and lasted three
days; each god fought in the form of a wolf or bear. (Fourth Sallier
Papyrus in the British Museum.)
The cult of Osiris is as old as Dynastic Egyptian civilization, and, from
the earliest to the latest times, he was regarded as the god-man who
suffered, died, rose again, and reigned eternally in heaven. He was the
“King of eternity, lord of the everlastingness, the prince of gods and
men, the god of gods, king of kings, lord of lords, prince of princes,
the governor of the world, whose existence is everlasting” (Papyrus of
Ani, Plate I). To the Egyptians Osiris was the god who “made men and
women to be born again,” 𓄠𓋴𓏏𓍃𓅱𓀀𓁐𓏪𓄙, who made them to rise from the
dead, and bestowed upon them everlasting life; he was, in all times, the
cause of their resurrection, and was also the =resurrection= itself. He
was both god and man, and could sympathize with them in sickness and
death, and the idea of his human personality brought them comfort. The
confidence with which men looked to him as a being who knew neither
decay nor corruption is best expressed in the words of a text on coffin
No. 22,940 (Wall-case No. 40, First Egyptian Room). “Homage to thee,
O my father Osiris! Thy flesh suffered no decay, worms touched thee
not, thou didst not moulder away, withering came not on thee, and thou
didst not suffer corruption; and I shall possess my flesh for ever and
ever, I shall not crumble away, I shall not wither, I shall not become
corruption.”
The =Kingdom of Osiris= was situated in Sekhet-ḥetep 𓇏𓏏𓏭𓈇𓏤𓊵𓏏𓊪𓊖,
_i.e._, the “Field of Peace,” a division of Sekhet-Ȧaru, or the “Field of
Reeds.” From the pictures of this region given in papyri we see that it
was surrounded by a stream of water, and intersected by numerous canals,
and, judging by the descriptions given in these pictures, it must have
been considered to be a very fertile place. The wheat and the barley
there grew to a great height, and plants, vegetables, and fruit trees
abounded. The idea of the Sekhet-ḥetep was no doubt suggested by the
fertile regions of the Delta and the Oases in the Western Desert.
[Illustration: Osiris in his shrine.]
[Illustration: Thoth in the form of an ape weighing the heart in the
presence of Osiris.]
[Illustration: The goddess Maāt weighing the heart in the presence of the
ape of Thoth. By her side is the Eater of the Dead.]
[Illustration: The Judgment of Osiris, from the Book of Gates.
=A= Osiris seated on a throne with nine steps.
=B= The scales in which the hearts of the dead were weighed.
=C= The pig, symbol of evil, in a boat under the charge of an ape, the
companion of Thoth.
=D= Anubis, the god of the tomb.
=E= Heads of gazelle, typical of the enemies of Osiris.]
In one part of this kingdom was placed the =Judgment Hall of Osiris=,
and there sat the great judge of the dead. The soul of every man was
brought there and weighed in the “Great Balance” in his presence, by
Thoth, the scribe of the gods. The soul was represented by the heart
𓄣, and was weighed against the feather 𓆄, symbolic of righteousness
(_maāt_). If the heart failed to counterbalance the feather it was cast
to an animal monster called Ām-mit, _i.e._, “Eater of the Dead,” which
was part crocodile, part lion, and part hippopotamus. When the heart and
the feather balanced exactly Thoth announced the fact to the gods of his
company, and then the soul of the deceased was taken by Horus into the
presence of Osiris, who rewarded him according to his deserts. Before the
weighing of the heart took place the deceased was obliged, presumably,
to pass along the Hall of Osiris, and to make the =Negative Confession=
before the Two and Forty Assessors of the Dead, “who tried sinners, and
fed upon their blood, on the day when the lives of men are reckoned up in
the presence of the Good Being” (Osiris). Apparently each of these beings
asked him the question: “Hast thou committed such and such a sin”? For
his answers, as given in the Book of the Dead (Chapter CXXV), take these
forms:—
“Hail, Long-strider, coming from Ȧnnu, I have not committed
iniquity.
“Hail, Eater of shades, coming from Qerti, I have not stolen.
“Hail, Bad-face, coming from Re-stau, I have killed neither man
nor woman.
“Hail, Flame, advancing and retreating, I have not robbed God.
“Hail, Uamemti, coming from the house of slaughter, I have not
committed adultery.
“Hail, Two-horns, coming from Saïs, I have not multiplied words
overmuch.”
The =forty-two sins= enumerated in the Negative Confession represent the
chief sins abominated by the Egyptians under the XVIIIth dynasty.
The texts connected with the examination of the dead show that the
Egyptian =idea of sin= was different from that of Western nations. With
the Egyptian the commission of sin was regarded merely as a breach of
the ritual law, or of the law of the community, and could be atoned for
by the payment of goods or possessions; this payment once made, the
law-breaker considered that he was free from all obligation, real or
moral. The idea of =repentance= finds no expression in Egyptian texts,
and, curiously enough, there is no word in Coptic for “repentance.” The
translators of the New Testament from Greek into Coptic were obliged to
use the Greek word μετάνοια. From the earliest times the Egyptians appear
to have believed firmly that the righteous would be rewarded in the
Other World, and the wicked punished, but there is no definite statement
on this point in the texts until the XIXth dynasty, when the =doctrine
of retribution= is clearly expressed. In the Second Part of the “Book
of Gates” a number of beings are described as “those who worshipped Rā
upon earth, who spake words of power against the Evil One (Āpep), who
made offerings to Rā, and burnt incense to their own gods.” Other beings
are described as “those who spake truth upon earth, and who did not
approach false gods” 𓈖𓏏𓂋𓇌𓅪𓏥. In return for this Rā gave to them food
and drink which should never fail, and decreed that their souls should
never be hacked in pieces. Close by, in the same section of the work, are
mentioned the “rebels against Rā, who blasphemed the god when they were
upon earth, who thrust aside right, and cursed the god of the horizon.”
As punishment for these deeds Rā decreed that they should be bound in
chains, that their bodies should be cut in pieces, and their souls
destroyed.
The =rewards of the righteous= were, moreover, graduated, for when
Osiris decreed that such and such a soul was to receive an estate in his
kingdom, the land measurers of heaven took their measuring ropes with
them, and going into the Elysian Fields measured out for those who were
deemed righteous plots, which varied in size according to their merits.
According to another view the blessed lived always with the Sun-god in
his boat, and travelled with him across the sky day by day. The “gods”
in heaven spent their lives in ministering to their god Osiris, or Rā,
and in performing his commands, and the duty of a certain number of them
consisted in singing to him and praising him at dawn and at sunset. The
spirits and souls of the righteous, in their glorified bodies, became
“beings and messengers” of God, and they sat on the great throne by
his side. They wore the finest raiment, and white linen garments and
sandals, they ate of the “tree of life” 𓆱𓐍𓏤𓆱𓈖𓋹𓈖𓐍, and sat with the
great gods by the side of the Great Lake in the Field of Peace, their
bread and drink never grew stale, they neither thirsted nor hungered, and
they enjoyed celestial figs and wine. In one portion of the kingdom of
Osiris the blessed cultivated the divine plant Maāt, whereon both they
and Osiris lived, and eating the same food they became one with him,
and shared with him his attributes of divinity, incorruptibility, and
immortality.
[Illustration: The holy Ape-gods singing hymns of praise to Rā at
sunrise.]
[Illustration: The Jackal-gods and the Hawk-gods singing hymns of praise
to Rā at sunset.]
=The wicked= who were in the Other World consisted of two classes: 1. The
=enemies of Rā=, the Sun-god. 2. The =enemies of Osiris=, _i.e._, the
souls of sinful men and women. The former were gathered together each
night and did their utmost to prevent the sun rising morning by morning,
but they were always seized by the angels of Rā and dragged by them to
the eastern portion of the sky, where they were cast into the fiery
caldrons of the god and consumed in their flames. The heavy mists and
clouds of the morning represented the smoke of these caldrons, and the
red glare of dawn was the reflection of their flames. Opinions differed
as to the way in which the enemies of Osiris were disposed of. According
to some, those who were condemned in the Judgment were devoured by the
monster =Ām-mit=, the “=Eater of the Dead=”; but others held that they
were dragged to the divine block of doom 𓌩, where they were beheaded by
the headsman of Osiris, called =Shesmu= 𓈚𓊃𓅓𓅱𓀭. Sometimes their bodies
were hacked limb from limb by him, and sometimes they were seized upon by
the “Watchers,” who “carry slaughtering knives, and have cruel fingers,”
and cut the dead into pieces, which were thrown down into pits of fire,
or into the great Lake of Fire. Here at one corner sat a monster who
swallowed hearts and ate up the dead, himself remaining invisible; his
name was “Devourer for millions of years.”
The =judgment of souls= took place at midnight, and the righteous were
rewarded, and the condemned punished before a new day began. The souls
of all those who had died during the day were judged that day, and their
cases disposed of finally; =eternal happiness= was decreed for the
blessed, and =annihilation, not everlasting punishment=, for the wicked.
In late times there are passages in the texts which suggest that certain
souls who set out from this world for the kingdom of Osiris failed to
reach it, either because the amulets which were buried with their bodies
were not sufficiently powerful, or because their offerings to the gods
were too few when they were on earth. There is no evidence that such
souls were believed to suffer, or that the portion of the Other World
beyond which they had been unable to proceed was a sort of =purgatory=.
They dwelt in darkness during the greater part of each day, but the
Sun-god passed among them each night, and spake words on which they lived
until the next night; when he departed they wept as the doors of their
abode closed on them, and shut him from their sight.
The views of the Egyptians about the position of =heaven= PET 𓊪𓏏𓇯, and
the Other World changed in different periods.
In the earliest times heaven was believed to be situated above the large,
flat rectangular slab of iron (or alabaster?) which formed the sky. This
slab was supported on four pillars, which were kept in position and
presided over by the four sons of Horus, Mesthȧ, Ḥāpi, Ṭuamutef, and
Qebḥsennuf. These four gods sat on pillars, which, subsequently, were
regarded as the =four cardinal points=. The stars were believed to be
hung from the slab by hooks through holes, , like lamps from a ceiling.
The righteous ascended to this heaven by means of a ladder. Osiris
himself was obliged to use a ladder, and Horus and Set held each one side
of the ladder [glyph not in Unicode], and assisted him to mount with
their fingers. The models of ladders and of the two forefingers which are
found in tombs commemorate this event.
The name given to the =Other World= was =Ṭuat= 𓇼𓄿𓏏𓉐. This region was
not _under_ the earth, or deep in it, but ran parallel with Egypt, which
formed one side of it. A river flowed through the whole length of it. On
the other side of the river was a range of mountains, and outside this
was the great celestial ocean which surrounded the world. The Ṭuat was a
valley which in the XIXth dynasty was believed to begin near Thebes, at
Manu, the Mountain of Sunset, and, stretching northwards as far as Saïs,
bent round towards the east until it reached the region of Ȧnnu (On),
when it turned to the south and continued until it ended at Bakhet, the
Mountain of Sunrise. The Ṭuat was divided into ten sections, and had a
vestibule at each end of it, and in the XIXth dynasty it included the
local kingdoms of the dead of Thebes, Abydos, Herakleopolis, Memphis,
Saïs, Bubastis, and Ȧnnu. Each section was guarded by a massive gate,
with battlements, but its door flew open before the Sun-god as he
traversed the Ṭuat nightly in his boat. According to one legend there
was a small passage at Abydos called “Peka,” _i.e._, the =Gap=, which
connected this world with the Ṭuat; and according to another there was
a similar passage at Thebes. Be this as it may, the souls of all those
who had died during the day assembled in the passage each evening and
endeavoured to obtain a seat in the solar bark as the god passed by. In
its passage the boat passed the kingdom of Osiris; those who preferred a
material heaven disembarked at that spot, and those who desired to become
like Rā and to be with him remained in their places in the boat. For all
souls, however, there was an examination of their credentials, and those
who were not provided with amulets, and with formulas and words of power,
were ejected.
=Recognition of Friends.=—From the statements made in papyri and on
coffins there is no doubt that the Egyptians believed that they would
know and recognize each other in the Other World, and would enjoy
intercourse with their relatives and friends. In the Papyrus of Ȧnhai
(B.C. 1040), we see this lady meeting her father and mother in the
Sekhet-ḥetep, or Elysian Fields, and sailing with her husband in a boat
on one of the canals; in the Papyrus of Ani (B.C. 1500) we see the
deceased seated with his wife Thuthu playing draughts; and the scribe
Nebseni (B.C. 1550) says: “I have seen the Osiris (_i.e._, his father),
and I have recognized my mother.” In the Book of the Dead (Chapter LII)
the deceased prays: “May my ancestors, and my father and mother be given
unto me as guardians of my door, and for the ordering of my territory,”
and in Chapter LXVIII he declares that he shall have authority over his
workmen and workwomen just as he had upon earth. On a coffin of the XIth
dynasty (B.C. 2600) at Cairo the gods Rā, Tem, Seb, and Nut are implored
to grant the “gathering together of the ancestors and kinsfolk of Sepȧ in
the Other World,” in the following words: “Let him traverse heaven, and
earth, and the waters, let him meet his ancestors, and his father, and
his mother, and his sons and daughters, and his brethren and his sisters,
and his friends both male and female, and those who have been as parents
to him (_i.e._, uncles and aunts), and his kinsfolk (_i.e._, cousins or
connexions), and those who have worked for him on earth, both male and
female, and the woman whom he hath loved and known.”[22] In the second
portion of the text it is declared that all these shall come forth to
meet Sepȧ on his arrival in the Other World, and that they shall bear in
their hands their staves, and their mattocks, and their ploughshares, and
their clubs, so that in the event of any attack being made upon him by
any hostile god, they may deliver their kinsman forthwith.
The use of =amulets= played a very large part in the Egyptian religion.
They were generally made of stones and other materials believed to
possess magical properties, which their wearers were supposed to acquire.
A fine collection of Egyptian amulets is exhibited in the Fourth Egyptian
Room (Table-case F), where examples of every authorized shape and kind
will be found. In connexion with these the unrivalled =collection of
scarabs= should be examined (Table-cases D, E, G, I).
[Illustration: Flint amulets of the Predynastic Period.
The Oryx. The Crocodile. A Fish. Hippopotamus.
[See Table-case M, Third Egyptian Room.]]
The following are the principal amulets mentioned in funerary texts
or found in tombs with, or on, the bodies of the dead: The =scarab=,
or =beetle=, _kheprer_ 𓆣𓂋𓂋𓅬, was the symbol of the god Kheperȧ, and
represented generation, new life, virility, and resurrection. The
=Heart=, _ȧb_ 𓄣, symbol of the seat of life in the bodies of gods,
animals, and men, and emblem of the conscience; it brought to the wearer
the protection of both Osiris and Rā. The heart was associated with the
scarab, and the same _ḥekau_, or words of power, were written on both.
The importance of this amulet is shown by the fact that in the Book of
the Dead six chapters are devoted to formulas for the protection of the
heart. The =Girdle of Isis=, _thet_ 𓎬, assured the wearer of the divine
protection of the holy blood of the goddess. The =Ṭeṭ= 𓊽, a fetish, the
original significance of which is unknown. In later times it symbolized
the tree trunk in which the body of Osiris was hidden by Isis, and also
the upright, consolidated back-bone of the god. Its general meaning is
stability. The =Pillow= 𓊫 typified the raising up and preservation of
the head. The =Vulture= 𓅐 brought with it the protection of the great
“Mother” Isis. The =Collar= gave strength and power to the breast,
heart, and lungs, and symbolized the dominion of the wearer over all
Egypt. The =Papyrus Sceptre= 𓇅 represented the strength, vigour, and
virility of youth, and abundance of every kind.
The =human-headed Hawk= ensured to the deceased the power of uniting
his body, soul and spirit at will. The =Ladder= [glyph not in unicode]
symbolized the ladder by which Osiris ascended from the earth to heaven.
Models of this were buried with the dead in the tombs, and when the
deceased needed a ladder he uttered the Chapter of the Ladder, and the
model ladder became as long as he wanted. The =Two Fingers= [glyph not in
unicode] index and medius, represent the fingers which Horus used when he
helped his father Osiris up the ladder which reached from earth to heaven.
The =Utchat= 𓂀 typified the strength and power of the Eye of Horus, or
Rā, _i.e._, the Sun-god, the two eyes 𓂀𓑀𓂀 gave to the wearer the strength
and protection both of the Sun and Moon. The =Ānkh= 𓋹, or symbol of
“life.” What object this amulet represented is unknown. The =Nefer= 𓄤,
or lute, signified “happiness, good luck,” etc. The =Serpent’s Head=
protected its wearer when alive against snake bite, and when dead against
the attacks of worms and serpents in the tomb. The =Menȧt= 𓋧 represented
nutrition, and the union of the male and female powers of nature,
generation, etc. The =Sma= 𓄥 symbolized animal pleasure. The =Shen= 𓍶
was the emblem of the orbit of the sun in heaven. King Besh, of the IInd
dynasty, wrote his name within this circle, which in an elongated form 𓍷
became the cartouche of the later kings. The _shen_ was the symbol of the
eternal protection of the name by Rā.
The =Steps= 𓊍 symbolized the throne of Osiris, and procured for the
wearer “exaltation” to and in heaven. The =Plumes= symbolized Isis
and Nephthys, who had their seat on the forehead of Rā, and the Maāti
goddesses, or goddesses of Right and Truth. The =Frog= 𓆏 was typical of
teeming life and the resurrection. It was the symbol of the goddess Ḥeqt,
the wife of Khnemu, who made the first man on a potter’s wheel, and when
laid on a dead person transferred to him the new life which was in the
body of the goddess. The =Pesesh-Kef= suggests the idea of second birth
in connexion with the ceremonies of Opening the Mouth. The mouth of
the mummy, or of a statue, was touched with this amulet, or instrument,
whilst the priest recited words of power; as a result of that the mouth
was “opened,” _i.e._, the deceased could henceforth talk, think, walk,
eat, drink, etc., in the Other World. A fine example of this amulet in
flint (Table-case M, Third Egyptian Room) of the Neolithic Period proves
that the idea of “opening the mouth” is older than the dynasties of
Egypt. The =Solar Disk= on the horizon 𓈌 symbolizes life which renews
itself, resurrection, virility, strength, etc. The =Neterui= 𓊋𓑀𓊋𓑀, or 𓊹𓊹,
represent the two iron instruments used in the ceremony of “opening the
mouth”; their presence among the swathings of the mummy, or in the tomb,
secured for the deceased the protection of the gods of the South and the
North.
On rare occasions all the amulets mentioned above have been found
in one tomb, or on a single body. A good example of a collection of
amulets found on a single body is No. 4 (Table-case K, Fourth Egyptian
Room). Here will be seen uraei, the _menȧt_, the _utchat_, the scarab,
the _shen_, the triad of Isis, Nephthys, and Harpokrates: the papyrus
sceptre, the heart, the plumes, the two fingers, ṭeṭs, etc.; the places
on the body on which they were found are indicated by the labels. Another
class of amulets is represented by the figures of gods, goddesses, and
sacred animals, which were either worn as pendants to necklaces, etc.,
during life, or placed among the swathings of the mummified body. Of
these the British Museum possesses very large collections, and the finest
examples of them will be found in Wall-cases Nos. 119-132, in the Third
Egyptian Room. A very remarkable group of amulets or objects, which were
intended to give protection to the tomb of the priestess for whom they
were made, is exhibited in the Second Egyptian Room (Wall-case No. 73).
It consists of a Ṭeṭ 𓊽, a human figure 𓀾, a jackal 𓃣, and a reed, and
each object stands on a small inscribed brick of Nile mud. The ceremony
in which these were used is described in the Book of the Dead (Chapter
CXXXVII). The text is only found in the Papyrus of Nu (No. 10,477), and
the group of objects which illustrates it appears to be unique.
In connexion with the numerous ceremonies which found a prominent place
in the cult of Osiris must be mentioned two classes of =magical figures=.
It has already been said that the righteous who lived in the kingdom of
Osiris were employed in the cultivation of the _Maāt_ wheat, on which
both they and Osiris lived. Now, before this wheat could be grown, it
was assumed that the land of the celestial fields had to be prepared
and watered, and renewed with top-dressing, just like the fields on
earth. These laborious agricultural works were performed by a celestial
_corvée_, which was under the general control of the “Ḥenbiu,” or gods of
the Celestial Domain Lands. These gods provided estates for the blessed,
and carefully watched the land measurers to see that they carried out
their orders. They also provided gangs of beings to work these fields,
and set taskmasters (Tchatchaiu) and time-keepers (Kheru āḥāu) over them,
so that they might make them toil their appointed time. Why these beings
were condemned to forced labour cannot be explained, for not a word is
said which would suggest that they were sinners, and that their work was
a punishment. The Egyptian theologians appear to have been incapable of
conceiving a heaven in which there was no _corvée_ to perform menial
tasks, and equally incapable of imagining the existence of a _corvée_
which did not need the constant supervision of time-keepers and gangers.
Be this as it may, the Egyptians, as a people, hated forced labour, and
the priests found a way for them to escape from it. The means chosen was
the =Shabti=, or =Ushabti figure=.[23] The meaning of the word Ushabti is
unknown. Some associate the name with that of the persea tree (=shab=,
or =shabt=), but others connect it with the word =ushab=, “to answer,”
and think the figure was called =Ushabti=, because in the text cut upon
it the figure “answers” and says: “Verily I am there,” etc. The Ushabti
figure was a figure made of wood, stone, porcelain, metal, etc., which
was intended to represent the person on whose behalf it was fashioned,
and it was supposed to carry a digging tool and a basket in which to
remove earth or sand from one place to another. In short, the Ushabti
figure is a model of a farm labourer or _fallâḥ_. On the figure it was
customary to cut a formula which was supposed to be said by the deceased
in the Other World, to this effect: “In the event of my being condemned
to spread dust (_i.e._, _sebakh_ or top-dressing) on the fields in the
Ṭuat, or to fill the water-courses with water from the river, or to reap
the harvest, such work shall be performed for me by thee, and no obstacle
shall be put in thy way.” Below this formula were cut the words with
which the figure was supposed to answer: “Verily I am there, wheresoever
thou mayest speak” (or call me). When the deceased found himself in the
Other World, and condemned to work in the celestial _corvée_, he was
supposed to utter the words rendered above, and if they had been spoken
in a correct tone of voice, the figure would change into a full-grown
man, who was provided with a digging tool and basket, and who was capable
of performing field labours.
The dread of forced labour in the minds of the Egyptians resulted in the
production of the immense numbers of Ushabti figures which are seen in
all great museums. The number found in some tombs is very large; thus,
Seti I caused 700 to be buried with him, and, at the present time, there
are 149 figures in the Ushabti-box of Ānkh-f-en-Khensu in Wall-case 116,
in the Third Egyptian Room. The collection of Ushabti figures in the
British Museum (Second Egyptian Room) is unrivalled, and contains fine
specimens of every period from about B.C. 2600 to B.C. 600. Worthy of
note are the limestone figure of Ȧāḥmes I, the fine diorite figure of
king Ȧmen-ḥetep II, the granite figure of Ȧmen-ḥetep III, the porcelain
and wooden figures of Seti I, and the figures of Rameses III, Rameses V,
Psammetichus I, and Uaḥ-ȧb-Rā (Pharaoh Ḥophra).
Other figures which were highly esteemed as possessing magical
powers were those to which the name of Ptaḥ-Seker-Ȧsȧr, or
=Ptaḥ-Socharis-Osiris=, has been given (see Second Egyptian Room,
Wall-cases 89-92). Ptaḥ was the creator of the world, according to the
doctrine of Memphis; Seker was the god of the Other World of Memphis;
and Ȧsȧr, or Osiris, has already been discussed; these three gods were
united in the later theology, and the resultant god was regarded as the
lord of Heaven, Earth, and the Other World. Figures of this triune god
were made of wood, painted or gilded, and fixed on a rectangular stand,
in which two cavities were usually hollowed out, one in front of the
figure and one at one side. In the cavity in front a little piece of the
body of the deceased was placed, and a cover was fitted over it, with a
figure of the hawk of Seker 𓅌 upon it; in the cavity in the side of the
pedestal a small roll of papyrus inscribed with prayers was inserted.
The figure and pedestal were often inscribed with formulas in which the
triune god Ptaḥ-Seker-Ȧsȧr was invoked, and it was believed that so long
as the portion of the dead body that was in the pedestal of the figure
was preserved, the body in the tomb would be kept in its integrity and
everlasting life would be assured for the soul. Typical examples of these
figures are Nos. 9870 and 9736 (Wall-cases 90 and 91, Second Egyptian
Room). Originally the figure on the pedestal was that of Osiris himself,
standing upon the symbol of Maāt, or Truth 𓐙; a good example is No.
20,868, which is hollow; it contained the fine copy of the Book of the
Dead of the priestess Ȧnhai, which is in the British Museum (No. 10,472,
Wall-case 90, Second Egyptian Room).
We have already seen that, after the murder and mutilation of the body of
Osiris, the Man-god of the primitive Egyptians, by Set, the god of evil,
Horus the son of Osiris, assisted by a number of beings who are called
the =Followers of Horus=, performed a number of magical ceremonies,
whereby the rejoining of the limbs of the god was effected, and the
preservation of his body was secured for ever. The Egyptians argued:
Certain ceremonies were performed by Horus on the dead body of Osiris,
and he was mummified, and as a result he rose from the dead; we therefore
will have the ceremonies which were performed over Osiris performed over
our dead bodies, which shall be mummified, as was the body of Osiris, and
we also shall rise from the dead. Every Egyptian from the time of the
IVth dynasty, about B.C. 3600, believed that his existence in the Other
World depended upon the =mummification= of his body in this world, and
during his lifetime he made provision for his embalmment, and, when his
means permitted, prepared a tomb in which his mummified body should be
placed. Now the Egyptian had several reasons for mummifying the dead: 1.
He wished the souls of the dead to enjoy everlasting life. 2. He wished
to maintain dwelling places for the Kau or “doubles” of the dead, so that
they might not be obliged to wander about in the deserts in search of
food. 3. He wished the dead to form a bond of union between the gods and
himself. 4. He believed that the soul came back to the body from time to
time. 5. He believed in the resurrection of the material body itself,
and that at some future time it would be united to its soul for all
eternity. This last was the chief reason why he preserved the body with
spices, unguents, bitumen, etc., and, in spite of the very high state of
civilization to which the Egyptians attained, the belief in the supreme
importance of mummification was never wholly eradicated from the minds of
ordinary folk, even after they had embraced Christianity.
In the most primitive times the dead were mutilated to prevent their
returning to their native places to live upon the food needed for the
living, but in the Dynastic Period the utmost care was taken to prevent
the mutilation of the body, and to preserve it from destruction caused
by damp, dry rot, or worms. The texts state plainly that after the
resurrection the body was to live upon earth, whilst the soul dwelt in
heaven. In the Vth dynasty it was written: “The soul belongeth to heaven,
and the body to earth,” and in the VIth dynasty it is said to king Pepi:
“Thy essence belongeth to heaven, and thy body belongeth to earth.” The
same idea occurs in all dynasties down to the Ptolemaïc Period, when we
find in the “Lamentations of Isis” the words addressed to the deceased,
who is identified with Osiris: “Heaven hath thy soul, and earth hath thy
body.”
Before an account of the process of mummification is given, it will
be well to note briefly the views which the Egyptians held as to the
relationship of the component parts of the material and spiritual man.
Most peoples have divided man into three parts, =body=, =soul=, and
=spirit=; but the Egyptian system of the human economy was more complex.
The material part of a man was the =khat= 𓏏𓐎, or =body=. Through
mummification, and the prayers which were recited over it after that
process, the body obtained a degree of knowledge, and power, and glory,
whereby it became henceforth lasting and incorruptible. This =glorified
body= was called a =Sāḥu= 𓊃𓂝𓎛𓅱𓋩. When a man was born into the world
there was also born with him an abstract individuality, or personality,
which remained with him all the days of his life, and could only be
separated permanently from him by death. To this personality is given
the name =Ka= 𓂓𓏤, a word which has been translated by “double, genius,
image, character, person, self,” etc.
When the Ka left the body at death it was necessary for the living to
find a habitation, and to provide meat, and drink, and shelter for it.
Otherwise it would be obliged to wander about in search of food, and if
it failed to find it, would return and wreak vengeance on the living.
Provision was therefore made for the Ka in the tomb of the dead person
of whom it had once formed a part. First a statue was made in stone, or
wood, and fashioned to represent the deceased. Over this a long series
of ceremonies was performed, and at the end of them the deceased was
declared to have obtained the powers of talking, thinking, walking, etc.,
and the statue was supposed to be in a fit state to receive the Ka should
it be pleased to enter into it and dwell there. A special chamber was set
apart in the tomb for the statue, and through an opening in one of the
walls which communicated with the hall of the tomb wherein the offerings
were made, the Ka inhabiting this statue was able to enjoy the smell of
the incense, meat, wine, and other offerings. It had power to leave the
statue and to wander about at will on earth and in the Other World; and
there are suggestions in the texts that it might take up its abode in the
body of a living man from which his Ka had temporarily gone forth for
some purpose of its own.
With the Ka was closely connected the =Ȧb= 𓄣𓏤, or =heart=, which was
regarded as the seat of life and the source of the emotions; it possessed
two phases, one material and the other spiritual. It corresponds with
the “dual soul” of many tribes in the Sûdân at the present day. The
spiritual heart could be stolen from a man by the exercise of magical
powers; and this belief survives among certain peoples in Central Africa
at the present day. Another attribute of a man was the =Sekhem= 𓋴𓐍𓅓𓌂, or
=vital power=, which was intimately connected with the Ka, and seems to
have possessed a form similar to it. The mental and spiritual attributes
of man were grouped in the =Khu= 𓐍𓅜𓅱, the exact meaning of which it is
very hard to define. The Khu seems to have been a shining, translucent,
transparent, intangible essence of a man, and the word is on the whole
perhaps best rendered by =spirit=. The Khu escaped from the tomb and
made its way to heaven, where it joined the “imperishable spirits” who
lived with Rā. It is probable that the Sāḥu, Ȧb, Sekhem, and Khu were all
attributes of the Ka.
That part of a man which was, beyond all doubt, believed to be
everlasting and to enjoy eternal existence in heaven in a state of glory,
was the =Ba= 𓅡𓏤, or =soul=; it was associated with the Ka, and, like
the heart, appears to have possessed a dual nature. It could live in a
state of invisibility, and yet could take form at pleasure; it is often
depicted as a human-headed hawk, 𓏤. The object of all the ceremonies
which were performed over the mummy or the statue in the tomb was to
bring back the soul from heaven to the body in which it dwelt on earth,
and when the priest told the kinsfolk of the deceased that “Horus had
recovered his eye,” _i.e._, that the soul had returned to the body, they
felt that everlasting life and happiness were secured for him. The souls
of the blessed lived with the “spirits” in the heaven of Rā, and when
they appeared in the sky they did so under the form of stars.
The soul was usually accompanied by the =Khaibit= 𓋼𓏤𓏏, or =shadow=,
which may be compared with the σκία of the Greeks, and the _umbra_ of the
Romans. It had an independent existence, and was able to separate itself
from the body at will, but hostile fiends might attack it, and therefore
the deceased prays in the Book of the Dead (Chapter XCII): “Let not be
shut in my soul, let not be fettered my shadow, let a way be opened for
my soul and for my shadow, and let them see the Great God.” It is very
difficult to know where the functions of each of these parts of a man
began and ended, for even the Egyptians became confused in dealing with
them, and the texts often contradict each other. The main facts are,
however, quite clear. The Egyptians believed in the existence of body,
double, spirit, soul, and shadow, at all periods, and the views which
they held about each are best understood by reference to the religious
beliefs which exist at the present time among the A-Zandê, or Nyam-Nyam,
the Bantu, the Mañbattu, and cognate tribes in Central Africa. Under
the influence of foreigners the primitive views became modified as time
went on, but in all essentials the Egyptians who served under the Romans
believed what their ancestors believed 5,000 years before.
CHAPTER VIII.
EMBALMING. THE EGYPTIAN TOMB.
=Mummy= is the name given to the body of a human being, or creature,
which has been preserved from decay by means of spices, gums, natron,
bitumen, etc.; strictly speaking it should only be given to the body
preserved by _bitumen_, for “mummy” is derived from a word which appears
in Arabic under the form _mûmîâ_, and means “bitumen.” The oldest
preserved bodies known were prepared with salt and soda, and bitumen was
certainly not used on a large scale for embalming purposes before the
XXIInd dynasty, about B.C. 900. The embalmed body, swathed in linen, was
called by the Egyptians _qes_ 𓈎𓊃𓀾, 𓈎𓊃𓌟𓍱, or _qesȧu_ 𓈎𓊃𓇋𓅱𓀿𓑀𓍱, which
has passed into Coptic under the form _kôs_. The word “mummy” is not of
Egyptian origin.
In the latter part of the Neolithic Period the Egyptians, in some places
at least, decapitated and dismembered the dead, but subsequently,
probably as a result of change in religious thought, they took steps to
preserve them. At first bodies were merely dried in the sun, and then
placed in a hole in the ground, in a sitting position, just as they
are to this day by the A-Zandê; later they were laid on one side, with
the legs bent upwards, and their knees near the chin. Evisceration of
some kind appears to have been practised, but not of a very elaborate
character. The finest and most complete example of the class of preserved
bodies which were buried in a crouching position is exhibited in the
First Egyptian Room, Case A. Here we see, lying on his left side, a
Predynastic Egyptian, with hair of a reddish tint; the knees are bent
to a level with the top of the breast, and the hands are placed before
the face. He was dolichocephalic, or =long-headed=, and he was both
physically and mentally entirely different from the Dynastic Egyptians,
whose skulls, in respect of measurements, occupy a middle position
between the dolichocephalic and the brachycephalic, or =short-headed=.
Round about the body are vessels which held food, flint weapons, etc. At
this period the body was sometimes wrapped in the skin of some animal, or
rolled up in a reed mat.
Soon after the beginning of the Dynastic Period, probably as the result
of the growth and development of the cult of Osiris, the Egyptians began
to devote more care to the preservation of the bodies of the dead, and
the earliest known examples prove that the brain and viscerae were
removed, and that the placing of bodies in a crouching position in graves
was abandoned, at all events among the ruling classes. The doctrine of
Osiris taught that the human body was a precious thing, and men took care
to embalm it and swathe it in linen, so that it might be ready for the
return of the soul to it, when it would begin a new life in the kingdom
of Osiris.
The Egyptian texts supply no details of the methods employed in
embalmment, but classical writers describe the processes at some length,
and the mummies which have been unrolled and examined prove that their
statements are on the whole correct. According to Herodotus (ii, 85)
there were =three methods of embalming= in use in his time. In the
=first= or most expensive =way=, the brains and viscerae were removed
from the body, which was carefully washed with palm wine, and then
sprinkled with powdered spices. The cavities in the head and body were
next filled with pounded myrrh, cassia, etc., and the opening in the
abdomen through which the viscerae were taken out was sewed up. A tank
containing a solution of salt, or soda, was prepared, and the body was
steeped in it for seventy days. At the end of this period it was taken
out of the solution, dried, and anointed with sweet-smelling unguents;
then the swathing with linen strips was begun. Sometimes, in the case
of women, the cheeks and lips were painted, the eye-lids smeared with
eye-paint, and other attempts made to give to the face the semblance of
life before swathing. The fingers and toes were each swathed separately,
then the legs and arms, and finally, when pads and wads of linen had
been fixed in various places to keep the swathings in position, and to
give to the mummy the traditional form of the mummy of Osiris, the body
and head were wrapped up in large sheets of linen, which were held in
place by stout bands. As each swathing was placed on the body, a priest
who was specially appointed said the formula which applied to it, and in
cases where a large number of amulets were used, these objects, which
were intended to give to the mummy the protection of the various gods,
were inserted, under his directions, in their proper places between the
swathings. When the swathing of the body was ended, the name of the
deceased was usually written in ink on one of the outer coverings.
In the =second method= of embalming, the viscerae were removed by
means of oil of cedar, and the flesh was dissolved off the bones by
a preparation of soda; mummies which were prepared by this process
consist of nothing but skin and bone. The =third method= was used almost
exclusively for the poor; the body was steeped in a preparation of soda
for a period of seventy days, and then handed over to the relatives for
burial. The period which elapsed between death and burial varied in
length. From the inscriptions we learn that in one case the embalming
lasted 16 days, the swathing in linen 35 days, and the burial 70 days,
_i.e._, 121 days in all. In another, the embalming occupied 66 days, the
preparations for burial 4 days, and the burial 26 days, in all 96 days.
According to the Bible (Genesis l, 3), the embalming of Jacob occupied
40 days, but the period of mourning was 70 days. Certain stelae in the
British Museum[24] mention 70 days, and we may assume that this period
was commonly observed, at all events, in Graeco-Roman times.
=Cost of embalming.=—According to Diodorus, who lived about B.C. 40, the
methods of embalming were three in number; the first cost one talent of
silver, about £250; the second, twenty minae, about £60; and the third
very little indeed. In the description of the first method given both
by Herodotus and Diodorus, it is said that the intestines were removed
from the body previous to embalming, but neither writer says what was
done with them afterwards. We know, however, that they were cleansed,
and wrapped in linen with powdered spices, salt, etc., and placed in a
series of four jars, or vases, to which modern writers have given the
name =Canopic Jars=. They were thus named by the early Egyptologists, who
believed that in them they saw some confirmation of the legend handed
down by certain ancient writers to the effect that Canopus, the pilot
of Menelaus, who is said to have been buried at Canopus, in Egypt, was
worshipped there under the form of a jar with small feet, a thin neck, a
swollen body, and a round back. Each “Canopic” jar was dedicated to one
of the =four sons of Horus=, or sons of Osiris, who were also the gods of
the =four cardinal points=; and each jar was provided with a lid made in
the shape of the head of the deity to whom it was dedicated. The names of
the four gods were:—
1. =Mesthȧ= 𓅓𓋴𓍘𓇋𓀭, or ȦMSET 𓇋𓅓𓋴𓏏𓀭; he was man-headed.
2. =Ḥāpi= 𓐑𓊪𓇌𓀭; he was dog-headed.
3. =Ṭuamutef= 𓇼𓅐𓏏𓆑𓀭; he was jackal-headed.
4. =Qebḥsennuf= 𓈎𓃀𓎛𓏁𓈗𓌣𓌣𓌣𓆑𓀭; he was hawk-headed.
These gods represented the south, north, east, and west respectively, and
the goddesses with whom they were associated were Isis, Nephthys, Neith,
and Serqet. Mesthȧ protected the stomach and large intestines; Ḥāpi, the
small intestines; Ṭuamutef the lungs and heart; and Qebḥsennuf the liver
and gall bladder. The custom of mummifying the intestines separately
is as old as the VIth dynasty at least, and the gods of the cardinal
points who presided over them are mentioned several times in the texts of
Unȧs, Pepi, and other kings of the Vth and VIth dynasties. The four jars
were usually placed in a coffer, or chest, specially prepared for the
purpose; and this is frequently depicted in representations of funeral
processions. The Ani Papyrus shows the four sons of Horus standing by
the coffer containing the mummified intestines of the deceased, and his
renewed body rising through the cover of it, holding “life” 𓋹 in each
hand (see page 138). Among the fine collection of “Canopic” jars in the
British Museum may be specially mentioned the set made for Ḳua-ṭep, XIth
dynasty, No. 30,838 (Third Egyptian Room, Wall-case No. 112), and the
sets Nos. 22,374-7, and 9562-5, of the later period, in Wall-cases Nos.
74 and 75 (Second Egyptian Room).
The custom of mummifying the dead appears to have been unknown in the
Predynastic Period. In the earliest attempts made to preserve the
body, the plan followed was to remove the intestines, and then to dry
it in the sun, or to rub it with salt. The skulls found in the tombs
are usually empty, a fact which proves that the embalmers were able to
remove the brain and membranes without injury to the bridge of the
nose; sometimes they contain bitumen, or some kind of resin, which must
have been introduced into them by the way through which the brains were
extracted, _i.e._, through the nostrils. Mummies cured with unguents
and spices do not last long when unrolled; the skin of those cured with
natron, _i.e._, a mixture of carbonate, sulphate, and muriate of soda,
is hard, and comparatively durable, but it hangs loosely from the bones,
which are white and somewhat friable; bodies from which the intestines
have been removed, and which have been preserved by being filled with
bitumen, are quite black and hard, and practically speaking, last for
ever. The dead poor were sometimes merely salted and laid in a common pit
or cave. At one period the dead were embalmed in honey: the treatment
of the child who was found in a sealed jar of honey, mentioned by the
Muḥammadan writer ʿAbd al-Laṭîf, and the body of Alexander the Great
being well-known instances of the custom.
Under, or soon after the XXVIth dynasty, the Egyptians began to place
their mummified dead in brightly painted =cartonnage cases=, decorated
with inscriptions containing the pedigree of the deceased, religious
texts, figures of gods, etc., and to set them upright in the halls of
their houses. The faces were painted to resemble those of the dead, and
attempts were made to reproduce the natural colour of their skins, hair,
and eyes, and even to represent small physical peculiarities. A man’s
immediate ancestors formed a part of his household.
About the beginning of the Graeco-Roman Period, or in the first century
after Christ, it became the custom among the ruling class in Egypt to
insert =painted portraits= of the dead in the linen swathings over
their faces. Specimens of such portraits may be seen in Case Y in the
Second Egyptian Room, and in Wall-cases Nos. 70 and 71. A century or two
later further attempts were made to abolish from mummies the funerary
swathings, etc., and the dead were placed in =papyrus cases=, which were
moulded to their forms, and were painted with coloured representations of
their clothes and ornaments. Very fine examples of such painted papyrus
cases are exhibited in Wall-cases 64 and 65 in the First Egyptian Room,
and they are of special interest as showing what kinds of garments and
jewellery were worn by the Graeco-Egyptian ladies of Egypt, and how they
were decorated. In the case of men, painted portraits were inserted
over the faces, and the rest of the mummy was covered with plaster,
usually coloured pink or red, and ornamented with faulty imitations of
the scenes found on the old cartonnage cases. The best example of this
kind of mummy is that of Artemidorus, exhibited in Wall-case 63 in the
First Egyptian Room. The figures of the gods, etc., are painted in gold,
and the mistakes in them prove that the artist did not understand the
signification of the scenes which he was copying. The old theology of
Egypt was forgotten, the meanings of the old funerary texts and scenes
were lost, and the artist found himself obliged to use the form of
address to the dead customary among the Greeks, _i.e._, “O Artemidorus,
farewell!”
The Egyptians, even after their conversion to Christianity, continued for
a time to mummify their dead, and to bury them with the old ceremonies;
but before the end of the third century A.D. the art of embalmment had
fallen into general disuse. The pagan Egyptian embalmed his dead because
he believed that the “perfect soul” would return to the body after
death, and that it would enter upon a new life in it; he therefore took
pains to preserve the body against the corruption of the grave. The
Christian Egyptian believed that at the Resurrection he would receive
back his body, changed and incorruptible, and that it was unnecessary
for him to preserve by means of spices and unguents that which he would
obtain, without any trouble on his part, by faith through Christ. Little
by little, as a result of this belief, the observance of the old pagan
ceremonies ceased, and with them embalmment in the Egyptian fashion. The
views which Anthony the “Father of the Monks of the Egyptian desert”
(A.D. 250-355), held on this matter are of importance. According to
Athanasius: “The Egyptians were in the habit of taking the dead bodies
of righteous men, and especially those of the blessed martyrs, and of
embalming them and placing them, not in graves, but on biers in their
houses, for they thought that by so doing they were paying honour to
them.” Anthony besought the Bishops to preach to the people, and to
command them to cease from this habit, and he showed “That it was a
transgression of a command for a man not to hide in the ground the bodies
of those who were dead, even though they were righteous men. Therefore
many hearkened and were persuaded not to do so, and they laid their dead
in the ground, and buried them therein.” When he was dying he entreated
his monks, saying: “Permit no man to take my body and carry it into
Egypt, lest according to the custom which they have, they embalm me
and lay me up in their houses.... And ye know that I have continually
made exhortation concerning this thing and begged that it should not be
done, and ye well know how much I have blamed those who observed this
custom. Dig a grave then, and bury me therein, and hide my body under the
earth, and let these my words be observed carefully by you, and tell ye
no man where ye lay me until the Resurrection of the Dead, when I shall
receive this body without corruption from the Saviour.” (See _The Life of
Anthony, by Athanasius_, in Migne _Patrologiae_, Ser. Graec., tom. XXVI,
col. 972.)
The linen =mummy swathings= must now be mentioned. These were made from
=flax=, and were of various thicknesses. Surviving examples vary in
length from a few inches to about 15 feet, and in width from 2 to 10
inches; some are made with fringe at each end. Mummies are often found
wrapped in linen sheets, several feet square, and the outside covering
of all is sometimes of a purple or salmon colour. Under the Ancient
Empire, mummy swathings were quite plain, but under the Middle Empire,
blue stripes occasionally appear at the ends, and the sheets in which
the mummies of kings were wrapped, _e.g._, Ȧmenḥetep III and Thothmes
III, were covered with hieroglyphic texts from the Book of the Dead. At
a later period texts in the hieratic character appear on the swathings,
accompanied by vignettes drawn in outline. The principal seat of the
linen industry in Egypt was Panopolis, the modern Akhmîm, and, at a very
early period, the weavers attained to such skill, that in a square inch
540 threads may be counted in the warp and 110 in the woof. About the
third century of our era, the mummies of wealthy people were wrapped in
“royal cloth” made wholly of silk and decorated with figures of gods,
animals, etc. The visitor will find a large collection of mummy swathings
and sheets exhibited in Table-case E, in the Third Egyptian Room. Here
are the fringed linen =winding-sheet= of Teḥuti-sat, a singing woman of
Queen Ȧāḥmes-nefert-ȧri, B.C. 1550 (No. 1); two swathings inscribed with
texts from the Book of the Dead (Nos. 11, 12); a roll of linen inscribed
with the names of Piānkhi Seneferef-Rā, B.C. 700 (No. 13); grave shirts
from Akhmîm (Nos. 18-27); and specimens of =embroidered linen=, with
figures of saints, etc. (No. 39 ff.); a portion of a =Coptic stole=
embroidered with scenes from the life of Christ, and squares of linen
worked with coloured figures of birds (doves?), and the Cross and symbol
of “life” 𓋹 within wreaths (Nos. 40-51).
In the same case is a good general collection of =reels=, =spindles= and
spindle whorls, and carding instruments, etc., used by workers in linen.
In Table-case J is a fine collection of pieces of linen ornamented with
patterns and designs woven in coloured threads, or worked in wools,
from the tombs of Egyptian Christians, dating from A.D. 300 to 900. Of
special interest are the squares with figures of Adam and Eve (No. 4),
St. George slaying the Dragon (No. 18), and God the Father among the
Seraphim (Nos. 21-24). The fine pieces of yellow silk, one with arabesque
designs and an Arabic inscription in the Kûfî character, are remarkable
(Nos. 25-27). Of =bier-cloths=, the finest example in Europe is probably
that seen in Wall-cases 70 and 71, in the Second Egyptian Room. This
cloth is embroidered in coloured wools, with a frieze of cherubs holding
necklaces, baskets of fruit, flowers, etc. In the centre two cherubs are
supporting a crown, within which is worked a cross, and the rest of the
cloth is ornamented with doves, vases of fruit and flowers, rosettes,
etc. It belongs to the period after A.D. 350.
The =Egyptian Tomb=.—The care taken by the Egyptians to preserve the
bodies of their dead would have been in vain if they had not provided
secure hiding places for their mummies. The mummy had to be guarded
against the attacks of thieves and of wild animals, and placed beyond
the reach of the waters of the Inundation. In primitive times the dead
of all classes were buried in graves which were dug on the skirts of
the desert, in the sandy or rocky soil; this custom was dictated by
economical considerations, for the mud soil of the country, every yard of
which was cultivated, was too valuable to the living to be devoted to the
dead. The graves were usually oval in shape, and comparatively shallow,
and they were covered over with slabs and layers of sand (see Case A,
First Egyptian Room); it is probable that they were marked by some kind
of stone or stake driven into the ground near the head of the grave.
The graves, in which bodies were buried in a sitting position, were,
of course, deeper than those in which they were laid on their sides.
Over the graves of chiefs, huts made of reeds and grass were built, and
offerings of food and drink were probably placed in them, as well as in
the graves. At a later period mud houses took the place of the reed huts,
and, still later, such houses were built of stone. In the Archaïc Period
the buildings over the graves of the kings were rectangular in form, and
they contained many chambers, wherein, no doubt, the ceremonies connected
with the burial of kings were performed, and stores of provisions of
all kinds for the use of the deceased were placed. At this time men and
women of lower rank were buried in shallow graves, the sides of which
were protected with crude bricks, and the poorest folk of all were buried
together in pits, which belonged to the community.
[Illustration: The Step Pyramid at Ṣaḳḳârah.]
[Illustration: PLATE XIV.
False door from the Maṣṭaba tomb of Ȧsȧ-ānkh, a high official, who
flourished in the reign of King Ȧssȧ, about B.C. 3400.
[Vestibule, South Wall, No. 53.]]
In the IIIrd dynasty, king Tcheser 𓍹𓂋𓍺, whose name a late tradition
coupled with a very severe Seven Years’ Famine, built himself, at
Ṣaḳḳârah, a magnificent tomb in the form of an oblong pyramidal building
with six steps, to which the name of =Step Pyramid= has been given. Its
total height is about 197 feet, and the length of its sides at the base
is: south and north 352 feet, east and west 396 feet. A common name for
the tomb is _Pa tchetta_ 𓉐𓏤𓆓𓏏𓇾, “House of eternity,” and tombs were
endowed with estates by wealthy folk in perpetuity. The commonest form of
tomb made for royal personages and nobles at this time, and for several
centuries afterwards, was the heavy, massive building of rectangular
oblong shape, the four sides of which were four walls symmetrically
inclined towards their common centre. To this building the name of
=maṣṭaba=, _i.e._, “bench,” has been given. It was thus called by the
Arabs, because all the examples with which they were familiar, being more
than half buried in sand, resembled the long low seats which are common
in oriental houses. The exterior surfaces of the maṣṭaba are not flat,
for the face of each course of masonry, formed of stones laid vertically,
is a little behind the one beneath it, and if these recesses were a
little deeper, the external appearance of each side of the building would
resemble a flight of steps. The height of the maṣṭaba varies from 13
feet to 30 feet, the length from 26 feet to 170 feet, and the width from
20 feet to 86 feet. The plan of the maṣṭaba is an oblong rectangle, and
the greater axis of the rectangle is usually in the direction from south
to north. Maṣṭabas were arranged in rows symmetrically on all sides of
the Pyramids at Gîzah. The maṣṭabas at Ṣaḳḳârah are built of stone and
brick. The entrance to the maṣṭaba is usually on the east side. Near the
north-east corner is sometimes found a series of long vertical grooves,
or a “false door” (see =Plate XIV=), which is sometimes called the stele.
Near the south-east corner is generally another opening, but larger
and more carefully made; in this is sometimes found a fine inscribed
limestone false door, and sometimes a small architectural façade, in the
centre of which is a door. The top of the maṣṭaba is quite flat.
[Illustration: A group of Maṣṭaba tombs at Ṣaḳḳârah.]
[Illustration: Tablet for offerings, or altar, of Ḥeru-sa-Ȧst, a scribe.
[Southern Egyptian Gallery, Bay 14, No. 1034.]]
[Illustration: An Egyptian tomb of the maṣṭaba class.
=A.=—The hall of the tomb in which offerings were made.
=B, C.=—The pit, or shaft, leading to the mummy chamber.
=D.=—A small corridor.
=E.=—The mummy chamber.]
[Illustration: The soul, in the form of a human-headed bird, descending
the pit of the tomb to visit the mummy in the mummy chamber.]
The interior of the complete maṣṭaba consists of: 1. A chamber. 2. The
Serdâb. 3. A pit. 4. A mummy-chamber. The walls of the =maṣṭaba chamber=
may be ornamented with sculptures or not. In it, facing the east, is a
false door, which is usually inscribed. At the foot of the false door, on
the bare ground, is often seen a =tablet for offerings=, made of granite,
alabaster, limestone, etc., on which are sculptured figures of meat and
drink offerings—cakes, loaves of bread, geese, a haunch of beef, vases of
unguents, fruit, vegetables, flowers, etc. In many tablets for offerings
small tanks, or hollows, with channels, are cut, and in these libations
of wine were supposed to be poured. A large collection of such tablets
for offerings of all periods, from the IVth dynasty to the Roman Period,
is exhibited in the Egyptian Gallery, Bays 14 and 16. Sometimes a pair of
stands for offerings, made of stone, is found by the stele; examples of
these are exhibited in Wall-case No. 200, in the Fourth Egyptian Room.
In the south or north wall of the maṣṭaba chamber is usually a narrow
chamber built of large stones, partly hidden in the masonry, to which the
name of =Serdâb=[25] has been given. Sometimes the serdâb is isolated
from the chamber, but usually it is connected with it by means of a
rectangular passage, or slit, so narrow that the hand can be inserted
in it with difficulty. Inside the serdâb the statue of the deceased,
which was intended to serve as a dwelling-place for the Ka, or double,
was placed, and the passage was made in order to conduct to it the smoke
and smell of the burning incense and offerings. The serdâb is sometimes
called the “Ka-chapel,” and persons of means and position generally
appointed a “priest of the Ka” to offer up offerings morning and evening.
The =pit=, or =shaft=, of the maṣṭaba was rectangular, square, or oblong,
but never round, and it varied in depth from 40 to 80 feet. It led to
the chamber below the ground where the mummy was laid. At the bottom
of the pit, on the south side, was an opening into a passage from 4 to
5 feet high; this passage led obliquely to the south-east, in the same
direction as the upper chamber, and then expanded on all sides and became
the sarcophagus chamber, or =mummy chamber=. When the dried or mummified
body had been placed in the sarcophagus, and the cover of the sarcophagus
had been sealed, the pit was filled with stones, mud, and sand, and the
deceased was thus preserved from all ordinary chances of disturbance.
The =ornamentation of the maṣṭaba= consisted of sculptured scenes of
three classes: 1. Biographical. 2. Sepulchral. 3. Those referring to
the cult of the dead and funerary gifts. In them we see the deceased
hunting, fishing, making pleasure excursions by water, listening to
music and watching women dance, overseeing building operations, or the
work of ploughing, sowing and reaping on his estate, the management of
cattle, the bringing of offerings to his tomb, etc. The reader will
gain a good idea of the general arrangement of the false doors inside
the maṣṭaba chamber, and the painted decorations and sculptures of an
ordinary maṣṭaba, by examining the complete monument exhibited in the
Assyrian Saloon. This was built originally on the side of a small spur
of the mountain near Ṣaḳḳârah for Ur-ȧri-en-Ptaḥ, a royal scribe and
councillor who flourished in the reign of Pepi II Nefer-ka-Rā, about
B.C. 3100. It is interesting to note that two “false doors” are found on
the south wall of this maṣṭaba, one for Ur-ȧri-en-Ptaḥ and one for his
wife Khent-kaut-s, and that the former contains a list of names of about
ninety canonical offerings. The decorations of maṣṭabas never include
figures of gods, or the emblems which at a later period were considered
sacred.
The next form of the tomb was the =pyramid=,[26] which is to all intents
and purposes merely a maṣṭaba built on a square base, with the greater
part of it above the surface of the ground. It contained a long passage,
with a sarcophagus chamber, or mummy chamber, at the end of it. The
place of the maṣṭaba chamber was taken by a small temple, or chapel,
built outside the pyramid, in which funerary gifts and offerings were
made; the pit of the maṣṭaba was represented by a long passage, which
sloped either upwards or downwards; and the mummy-chamber in each case
was substantially the same. The principal pyramids of Egypt are those of
Abû Roâsh, Gîzah, Zâwyet al-ʿAryân, Abû-Ṣîr, Ṣaḳḳârah, Lisht, Dahshûr,
Al-Lâhûn, Ḥawârah, and Kulla. In the Egyptian Sûdân there are pyramids at
Kurrû, Zûma, Tanḳâsi, Gebel Barkal, Nûrî, and Bagrawîr, but all these are
inferior in design and construction to the pyramids of Egypt. The latest
of the pyramid tombs in the Sûdân were built probably during the first
or second century A.D. by a series of native queens, each of whom bore
the name of “Candace.” A great many theories, chiefly of an astronomical
character, have been formulated about the Pyramids of Gîzah: but it is
now generally thought that they were tombs and nothing else, and there is
no evidence to justify us in believing that they were built by any of
the Hebrew patriarchs, or that they were the “Granaries of Joseph,” or
that they contain chambers filled with gold and precious stones, which
have not yet been discovered or cleared out. The kings of the XIIth
dynasty followed the example of their predecessors of the Vth and VIth
dynasties, and built pyramids for their tombs, but they were on a much
smaller scale. The pyramids of Ȧmenemḥāt I and Usertsen I were at Lisht,
those of Ȧmenemḥāt II and Usertsen III were at Dahshûr, the pyramid of
Usertsen II was at Al-Lâhûn, and that of Ȧmenemḥāt III was at Ḥawârah.
Nobles and high officials built pyramidal tombs, usually about 30 feet
high, which were supposed to contain the three essential parts of the
tomb, the upper chamber, the pit, or shaft, and the mummy chamber; but
as a matter of fact, the body was buried in the brickwork which formed
the base of such a pyramid; there was no pit, and the pyramid itself
represented the upper chamber.
[Illustration: A section of the Second Pyramid of Gîzah, built by
Khāfrā (Chephren), showing a piece of the original casing at the top,
underground passage, and mummy chamber.]
[Illustration: Entrance to the tomb of Khnemu-ḥetep, an official, at Beni
Hasan.
XIIth dynasty.]
[Illustration: PLATE XV.
View of a painted chamber in the tomb of the scribe Nekht.
XVIIIth dynasty, about B.C. 1450.]
[Illustration: PLATE XVI.
Wall-painting from a tomb.
_Scene_: Payment of tribute. Sûdânî men bearing rings of gold, logs of
ebony, panther-skins, apes, etc.
[Northern Egyptian Gallery, Bay 13, No. 520.]]
=Rock-hewn tombs.=—The pyramid tomb was suitable for regions where the
ground was flat, but the Egyptians who dwelt in places near mountains
began at an early period of history to hew tombs in them. Thus at Aswân
(Syene) the mountains on the west bank of the Nile contain three tiers
of tombs, the oldest being those of nobles and governors of Elephantine
under the VIth and VIIth dynasties. These are approached by means of a
staircase cut in the slope of the hill, down the middle of which a smooth
path was made for the purpose of drawing up the coffins and sarcophagi
of the dead. At the top of the staircase the hill was scarped, and here
the chambers of the tombs were hewn. The “false doors” were cut in the
solid rock, and were above the mouth of the shaft, or pit, at the bottom
of which, in chambers made for the purpose, the mummies were placed. Some
of the tombs of the XIIth dynasty on the north side of the hill have long
corridors leading to the mouths of the pits, and above these are the
“false doors,” before which statues were sometimes placed.
[Illustration: Entrance to a royal tomb in the Valley of the Tombs of the
Kings.]
[Illustration: I. Ground Plan of the Tomb of Seti I, B.C. 1366.
II. Section of the Tomb of Seti I.
(From Lepsius, _Denkmäler_, Abth. I, Bl. 96.)]
[Illustration: Wall-painting from a tomb.
_Scene_: Servants of a high official bearing offerings to the tomb.
[Northern Egyptian Gallery, Bay 12, No. 517.]]
Under the XVIIIth dynasty rock-hewn tombs of great size were made, and
the finest examples of these are undoubtedly the =Tombs of the Kings=
at Thebes. The annexed plan and section of the tomb of Seti I will give
an idea of the extent of the largest of them. A is a flight of steps, B
a corridor, C a second flight of steps, D a corridor, E, F, and G are
rectangular chambers, H and I corridors, K an ante-chamber, L the large
six-pillared hall in which stood the king’s sarcophagus and mummy, and
M, N, O, P, Q are chambers in which funerary ceremonies were performed.
Under the sarcophagus is another staircase, which leads to an unfinished
passage, its entrance being about 150 feet below the entrance to the
first staircase; the total length of the tomb is about 700 feet. The
walls of the corridors and of most of the chambers are decorated with
hieroglyphic texts and vignettes which illustrate mythological legends
and the funerary ceremonies, all painted in bright colours, and on the
roof of the great hall are painted lists of the thirty-six Dekans and
other stars, and several figures of solar and stellar gods. The Tombs
of the Kings were all built on practically one and the same plan; the
modifications which are found in the details are due partly to structural
difficulties, and partly to the variation in the length of the time which
was devoted to their making. They cover a period of about 550 years,
_i.e._, B.C. 1600-1050. At the entrances to some of the tombs of nobles
and high officials gardens were laid out and trees planted, and these
were, of course, maintained out of the endowments of the tombs. Under
the XXVIth dynasty attempts were made to reproduce tombs after the plans
of the XIXth dynasty, and a few very remarkable tombs, _e.g._, that of
Peṭā-Ȧmen-ȧpt at Thebes, were the result. The decoration was, however,
inferior, and the scribes who drafted the texts for the walls contented
themselves with making extracts from the old funerary compositions, and
invented few that were wholly new.
[Illustration: Limestone coffin of Ḥes-Peṭān-Ȧst.
Ptolemaïc Period.
[Southern Egyptian Gallery, Bay 26, No. 968.]]
The poor were buried in shallow graves made in the desert, or in caves
and hollows in the mountains. Some of the caves in the Theban hills are
literally filled with skulls and bones and the remains of badly made
mummies, and the same may be said of several “mummy pits,” in many parts
of Egypt, which were the common property of the neighbouring towns. Among
such remains are found cheap porcelain scarabs and poorly moulded figures
of the gods, and sometimes coarse papyrus sandals, which prove that the
equipment of the poor for their journey to the Other World was cheap and
meagre.
=Tomb Equipment.=—To describe here in detail all the varieties of objects
which may be fittingly grouped under this head is impossible, but
the principal requirements of the dead of well-to-do folk may be thus
enumerated: =1.= =Coffin=, or coffins, painted and decorated according
to the means of the relatives. A fine collection of coffins, which
illustrates all the important varieties between B.C. 2600 and A.D. 300
is exhibited in the First and Second Egyptian Rooms. Fine =sarcophagi=
in wood and stone will be found in the Second Egyptian Room and in the
Southern Egyptian Gallery (see =Plates XVII= and =XVIII=). =2.= A stele,
or =sepulchral tablet=, recording the name and pedigree of the deceased,
and containing usually a prayer to certain gods for sepulchral offerings
(see =Plate XIX=). Examples of almost every kind of sepulchral tablet
in stone will be found on the shelves in the Egyptian Galleries, and
brightly painted wooden tablets are exhibited in the Third Egyptian Room
(Wall-cases Nos. 99-113). =3.= A set of =Canopic Jars= (see above page
160). =4.= A =statue=, or figure, seated or standing, usually inscribed,
which was intended to form a dwelling place for the “double” (Ka) of the
deceased, and to receive the offerings of his friends and relatives. (See
the double statue of Ka-ṭep and Ḥetep-ḥeres from their maṣṭaba at Gîzah,
and Third Egyptian Room, Wall-case 99 ff.) =5.= A =ushabti figure=,
_i.e._, a figure which was supposed to transform itself into a living man
in the Other World at the command of the deceased, and to perform any
agricultural work which he might be condemned to do. In some tombs scores
of _ushabtiu_ have been found, and when a large number was buried in a
tomb, a special box to hold them was provided. (For examples see Second
Egyptian Room, Wall-cases Nos. 77-82.) =6.= A =Heart-scarab=, _i.e._,
a model of a beetle (of the _Goliath_ species?) usually in hard green
stone, which was either inserted in the breast of the deceased, where
it was intended to take the place of his heart which had been removed
during the process of mummification, or was fastened on the breast over
the heart. It was inscribed with the text of Chapter XXXB of the Book of
the Dead, in which the deceased prays that his heart may be victorious
in the judgment, that no hostile or lying witnesses may appear against
him, etc. This prayer is very old, and a Rubric to the LXIVth Chapter
proves that it was in existence early in the IVth dynasty. Frequently
the heart-scarab was inserted in a rectangular temple-shaped plaque, or
pectoral (see Table-case I, in the Fourth Egyptian Room). =7.= A copy of
some religious text or texts (=Book of the Dead=), written upon stone,
wood, or papyrus. In the Vth dynasty such texts were cut on the walls of
pyramid chambers, corridors, etc. In the XIth dynasty they were traced in
ink on the stone mummy chambers and on the sides of wooden sarcophagi.
(See the coffin of Āmamu in the First Egyptian Room, Case C.) In the
XVIIIth-XXVIth dynasties they were written on rolls of papyrus which were
placed in the coffin with the mummy, or between the legs of the mummy,
or in a niche in the wall of the tomb. Sometimes the mummy was wrapped
wholly in inscribed papyrus, and sometimes the texts were written on the
linen swathings. =8.= A =set of vessels= (bowls, jars, vases, bottles,
etc.) for holding unguents, oils, astringent liquids, etc., for use in
the Other World. These were made of granite, diorite, breccia, alabaster,
etc., and their shapes are often exceedingly graceful. A very complete
collection of them will be seen in the Fourth Egyptian Room; the oldest
date from the Archaïc Period, and the series continues to the XXVIth
dynasty at least. =9.= Royal ladies and priestesses were usually provided
with a =toilet box= containing combs, mirror, hair-pins, hair-tweezers,
sandals, tubes of eye-paint, flasks of sweet unguent, etc.; for an
example see Standard-case L, in the Fourth Egyptian Room. =10.= A
=Pillow= made of wood, ivory, alabaster, etc.
[Illustration: Painted limestone figures of Ka-ṭep and his wife
Ḥetep-ḥeres.
IVth dynasty, B.C. 3750.
[Vestibule, East Doorway, No. 14.]]
The tombs of the wealthy were provided with chairs, tables, couches,
stools, boxes, painted and inlaid to hold jewellery, scents, etc., and
many articles which the Egyptians used daily in their professions. The
sistrum, cymbals, and bells which the priestess used in the temple
were buried with her; the bow and arrows of the hunter, the favourite
inscribed staff of authority of the official, the spear, dagger and axe
of the warrior, the palette and colour-pots of the artist, the sceptre
or symbol of office of the governor, children’s toys and dolls, dice,
draughts, and counters used in games—all these things went to form the
equipment for the tomb in individual cases, and examples of them are to
be seen in the Third and Fourth Egyptian Rooms.
Of =personal ornaments= of the dead the variety is endless, but a very
good general idea of them may be obtained from the collections in the
Table-cases in the Fourth Egyptian Room. In =Case F=, one side is filled
with amulets, many of which were worn for decorative purposes during
life by their owners, and the other side contains a collection of
=necklaces= and =beads= belonging to various periods between B.C. 1700
and A.D. 100. The beads are made of gold, amethyst, garnet, carnelian,
mother-of-emerald, lapis-lazuli, agate, topaz, glass, etc., all which
materials were believed to possess magical properties, and the pendants
were intended to bring luck, long life, health, etc., to their wearers.
The necklaces of the early period will be found in =Case J=, some of
which belong to the period of the Early Empire; the porcelain beads and
necklaces are in =Case B=. At one period unpierced, round and conical
beads were made in Egypt. (See Table-case L, Second Egyptian Room.)
They were found placed in semi-circular rows on a layer of clay, which
was intended to serve as a necklace or breastplate for a mummy. A fine
display of =gold rings=, =pendants=, =bracelets=, etc., will be found in
=Table-case J= in the Fourth Egyptian Room. Worthy of special note are:
the gold =bracelets= of =Nemareth= (Nos. 134, 135), the gold uraeus (No.
105), the “heart-scarab” in massive gold setting (No. 132), the hawk of
gold (No. 133), gold pendant (No. 137), gold pectoral (No. 138), =gold
bangle= with figures in gold and silver alternately (No. 140), gold lion
(No. 175), =Scarab of Sebekemsaf=, a king of the XIVth dynasty (No.
195), =gold rings= inscribed with the names of Thothmes III, Ḥātshepset,
Shishak I, Ȧmen-ḥetep III, and Ptolemy III (Nos. 198, 201, 217, 237,
266), =silver rings= inscribed with the names of Ȧmen-ḥetep IV, Shishak,
and Psammetichus (Nos. 390, 392), and a very fine collection of 64
scarabs in agate, onyx, lapis-lazuli, etc., from the tomb of a princess
of the XIIth dynasty, about B.C. 2400 (No. 382).
[Illustration: PLATE XVII.
General view of the Sarcophagus of King Nekht-Ḥeru-ḥebt, B.C. 378,
engraved with scenes and texts from the Book of What is in the Other
World, and selections from the Book of the Praises of Rā.
[Southern Egyptian Gallery, Bay 25, No. 923.]]
[Illustration: PLATE XVIII.
Granite sarcophagus of Nes-Qeṭiu, a prince, chancellor, and scribe of
Ȧmen-Rā.
XXVIth dynasty, or later.
[Southern Egyptian Gallery, Bay 26, No. 825.]]
[Illustration: PLATE XIX.
Sepulchral tablet of Ban-āa, a scribe.
XVIIIth dynasty.
[Northern Egyptian Gallery, Bay 9, No. 474.]]
CHAPTER IX.
NUMBERS CARDINAL AND ORDINAL. DIVISIONS OF TIME: THE CALENDAR, SOTHIC
PERIOD. CHRONOLOGY.
=Numbers.=—The numbers =1 to 9= are expressed by short perpendicular
strokes, _e.g._, 𓏺 = 1, 𓏻 = 2, 𓏼 = 3, 𓏻𓏻 = 4, 𓏾 = 5, 𓏿 = 6, 𓐀 = 7, 𓐁 =
8, and 𓐂 = 9. The number =10= is expressed by 𓎆, =100= by 𓍢, =1,000= by
𓆼, =10,000= by 𓂭, =100,000= by 𓆏, =1,000,000= by 𓁨, and =10,000,000= by
𓍶; =tens= up to 90 are expressed by repeating the sign for ten, 𓎆, so
many times; hundreds up to 900 by repeating the sign for hundred, 𓍢, so
many times; thousands up to 9,000 by repeating the sign for thousand, 𓆼,
so many times; and so on. The following extract will illustrate the use
of these signs:—
I.
Ru geese 𓆾𓆾𓍩𓎆𓎆 = 6,820
Khet-āa geese 𓆼𓍣𓍣𓎆 = 1,410
Turpu geese 𓆼𓍢𓍣𓍣𓎆𓎆𓎆𓏻𓏻 = 1,534
Tchau geese 𓍢𓎊 = 150
Mest geese 𓆿𓎋 = 4,060
Water fowl 𓂮𓇀𓎆𓎆 = 25,020
Menāt birds 𓂭𓂭𓂭𓂭𓂭𓆼𓆼𓆼𓆼𓆼𓆼𓆼𓍩𓎆 = 57,810
Paṭ birds 𓂮𓆼𓍢𓍧 = 21,700
Paāsh birds 𓆼𓍣𓎉 = 1,240
Birds 𓆾𓆾𓍢𓍣𓍣𓎆 = 6,510
-------------------------------------------
Total No. of birds: 𓆏𓏤𓂮𓆾𓆾𓍣𓎆𓎉𓏻𓏻 = 126,254
===========================================
II.
𓅧𓈎𓏥𓉻𓏛 𓆏𓆏𓆏𓆏𓆏𓆏𓆏𓆏𓆏𓂯𓂯𓂯𓆽𓍧𓍢𓎊
Large loaves 992,750.
=Fractions= 𓂋𓏥 = ⅓, 𓐝 = ½, = ⅔, 𓂋𓎆 = ⅟₁₀, 𓂋𓍢 = ⅟₁₀₀, 𓂋𓆼 = ⅟₁₀₀₀,
𓂋𓎆𓎆𓎆𓎆𓐃 = ⅟₄₅, etc. =Ordinal numbers= are indicated by 𓎖 placed
before the figure, or by 𓏌 placed after it; _e.g._ 𓎖𓏿 = “sixth,” 𓐀𓏌 =
“seventh.”
Divisions of =Time=.—The smallest fraction was the _ȧnt_, 𓁻𓈖𓏏𓇳, =one
third of a second=, or “the twinkling of an eye.” Then came the _ḥat_
𓇉𓄿𓏏𓇳, =second=; the _at_ 𓄁𓏏𓇳, =minute=; and the _unnut_ 𓃹𓈖𓏌𓏏𓇳
=hour=. Twenty-four hours made one =day=, _hru_ 𓉔𓂋𓅱𓇳𓏤, ten days made
one =week=, and thirty days one =calendar month=, 𓇺𓂧𓇼𓇳. Twelve months
plus the five epagomenal days made one vague or =calendar year=, _renpit_
𓂋𓈖𓊪𓏭𓏏𓆳𓇳. Longer periods of time were:—
=Seṭ= period 𓋴𓂧𓈅𓉳 = 30 years.
=Two-Ḥenti= period 𓎨𓎨𓇳𓇳 = 120 ”
=Ḥeḥ= 𓎛𓇳𓎛 = An Age.
=Tchetta= 𓆓𓏏𓇾 = Eternity.
We also have:—
= Millions of years.
= 10,000,000 years.
= 1,000,000,000,000 years.
[glyph not in unicode] = 10,000,000,000,000 years.
[glyph not in unicode] = 1,000,000,000,000,000,000 years.
In late times the =Sothic Period= and the =Phoenix Period= were used by
the Greeks, but there is no evidence that either was known to the Ancient
Egyptians.
=Chronology=, and the =ancient Egyptian Year=. The Calendars of Lucky
and Unlucky Days indicate that in very early times the Egyptian Year
consisted of 12 months each of 30 days, _i.e._, that the primitive year
contained 360 days. Whether the Egyptians ever tried to use the lunar
year of 354 days there is no evidence to show. Now the progress of the
seasons would, in a few years, soon convince those who used the =year=
of =360 days= that their year did not agree with the solar year, and
that it was too short, and they would be obliged to add to its days in
some way. The inscriptions prove that even at so early a period as the
reign of Pepi II of the VIth dynasty, the Egyptians were in the habit of
adding =five days= each year to their year of 360 days, and that before
B.C. 3000 the year in common use contained =365 days=. These “five days”
are known as “the days over the year” 𓆳𓁷𓂋𓅱𓇳𓐃, or 𓇳𓏦𓏾𓁷𓂋𓅱𓇯𓏥𓆳𓏏𓏤,
or “the =five epagomenal days=,” and they were said to be the days on
which Osiris, Horus, Set, Isis, and Nephthys respectively were born. The
primitive year of 360 days was divided into =three seasons=. The first
season was =Shat=, or =Akhet=, 𓆷𓏏𓇳; it began about July 19 and ended
about November 15, and corresponded practically with the period of the
Inundation. The second season was =Pert= 𓉐𓂋𓏏𓇳; it began about November
15 and ended about March 15. The third season was =Shemu= 𓈚𓈗; it began
about March 15 and ended about July 13. These seasons to the Egyptians
represented roughly =Winter=, =Spring=, and =Summer=. Each season
contained =four months=, which were in early times called the first,
second, third, and fourth month of that season; in later times a name was
given to each month. The following was the early calendar:—
COPTIC NAME.[27]
𓇺𓏺𓆷𓏏𓇳, 1st Month of sowing THOTH. ⎫
𓇺𓏻𓆷𓏏𓇳, 2nd ” ” PAOPHI. ⎪ Inundation time
𓇺𓏼𓆷𓏏𓇳, 3rd ” ” ATHYR. ⎪ and Winter.
𓇺𓏽𓆷𓏏𓇳, 4th ” ” CHOIAK. ⎭
𓇺𓏺𓉐𓂋𓏏𓇳, 1st Month of growing TYBI. ⎫
𓇺𓏻𓉐𓂋𓏏𓇳, 2nd ” ” MECHIR. ⎪ Spring.
𓇺𓏼𓉐𓂋𓏏𓇳, 3rd ” ” PHAMENOTH. ⎪
𓇺𓏽𓉐𓂋𓏏𓇳, 4th ” ” PHARMUTHI. ⎭
𓇺𓏺𓈚𓈗[28], 1st Month of inundation PACHONS. ⎫
𓇺𓏻𓈚𓈗, 2nd ” ” PAYNI. ⎪ Summer.
𓇺𓏼𓈚𓈗, 3rd ” ” EPIPHI. ⎪
𓇺𓏽𓈚𓈗, 4th ” ” MESORE. ⎭
To these twelve months, as already said, five days were added, and the
year thus formed is generally known as the “=vague= (or wandering)
=year=,” and the “=calendar year=.” Now it is clear that since this vague
year of 365 days was shorter than the true year, or “=solar year=,” of
365¼, by nearly a quarter of a day, every fourth vague year would be
shorter than the true year by nearly a whole day. Moreover, given a
sufficient number of years, the vague year would work backward through
all the months of the year, until at length the first day of the vague
year would coincide with the first day of the solar year. Thus, supposing
the first day of the vague and solar years to have coincided on January
1, B.C. 2000, two hundred years later the first day of the vague year
would have worked back about 50 days; and five hundred years later,
_i.e._, about B.C. 1300, the first day of the vague year would fall in
the height of the summer instead of in the depth of winter. This defect
in their year of 365 days would soon become apparent, and we may be
sure that they were not long in discovering some means for correcting
it. According to some authorities the Egyptians knew the length of the
true, or solar, year with considerable exactitude, and if this be so they
were well able to plan their farming operations without any reference
to the vague year. According to others the Egyptians were ignorant of
the solar year, but were acquainted with a =Sothic year=, which is so
called because it began on the day when the star =Sepṭ= (or =Sirius=,
or =Sothis=, or the =Dog Star=) rose heliacally, that is to say, with
the sun. This happened on July 19 or 20, and as this date was very near
the time when the Inundation began, the Egyptians considered it most
convenient for their year and the Inundation to begin at the same time.
The =Sothic year= contained practically 365¼ days, _i.e._, a few minutes
more than the true, or solar, year; and the =Sothic Period=, _i.e._,
the length of the time which must elapse between two risings of Sothis
heliacally, contained 1,460 Sothic years, or 1,461 vague, or calendar,
years.
It has now to be considered how the above facts bear upon Egyptian
=chronology=. To make a complete scheme of Egyptian chronology we need
a complete list of the kings of Egypt, and to know the order in which
each succeeded, and the number of years which each reigned. Now, such a
list does not exist, for the lists we have only contain selections of
kings’ names; and of many a king neither the order of his succession nor
the length of his reign is known. The facts at present available do not
permit the making of a complete detailed scheme of chronology, but one
which is =approximately correct= in many parts of it can be framed. As
authorities for the names of the kings there are:—1. The =Royal Papyrus
of Turin=, which, when complete, contained over 300 royal names. 2. The
=Tablet of Abydos=,[29] made for Seti I, containing seventy-six names.
3. The =Tablet of Ṣaḳḳârah=, containing fifty names. 4. The =Egyptian
monuments= of all periods. 5. The King List of =Manetho=.[30] The Turin
Papyrus, which was compiled about B.C. 1500, gave the lengths of the
reigns of the kings, but unfortunately most of them are broken. Manetho
compiled his King List, it is said for Ptolemy II Philadelphus, in the
first half of the third century B.C., but, as the work in which it
appeared is lost, we only know it by the copies which have come down to
us in the =Chronicle of Julius Africanus= (third century A.D.), in the
=Chronicle of Eusebius=, Bishop of Caesarea, who died about A.D. 340, and
in the =Chronography of George the Monk= (eighth century A.D.). Eusebius
himself also compiled a King List, but his results differ materially from
those of Manetho as given by Africanus. Manetho divided the kings of
Egypt into thirty dynasties, which he arranged in three groups: Dynasties
I-XI, XII-XIX, and XX-XXX. He also gave the lengths of the reigns of the
kings, and the cities of their origin, Memphis, Elephantine, Thebes, etc.
Now, although a great many credible facts are to be gathered from the
above authorities from which we are justified in making the general
deduction that the period of dynastic civilization lasted between four
and five thousand years, they none of them help to fix an exact date
for the reign of the first dynastic king of Egypt, who, by general
consent, is said to have been =Menȧ= or =Menes=. If Manetho’s List
were trustworthy, the difficulty would be settled, but unfortunately
one version of it makes 561 kings reign in 5,524 years, whilst another
gives the number of the kings as 361, and their total reigns as 4,480 or
4,780 years. Many Egyptologists have accepted Manetho’s statements with
modifications, but others have tried to work out more accurate results,
astronomically, by the use of the =Sothic Period=. It has already been
said that the Sothic Period of 1,460 years is equal to 1,461 vague, or
calendar, years, and it is argued that, if we can find mentions of the
risings of Sothis (Sirius, or the Dog-star) expressed in terms of the
vague year, and if we can also fix a date for the beginning or end of a
Sothic Period, it will be possible to arrive at fixed points in Egyptian
chronology. Fortunately some three or four mentions of the rising of
Sothis are known in the inscriptions, and thanks to =Censorinus=, who
wrote his work (_De Die Natali_) A.D. 238, it is known that a Sothic
Period came to an end A.D. 139.[31] If this be so, it is clear that the
Sothic Period to which he refers began in B.C. 1321, the one before that
in B.C. 2781, the one previous in B.C. 4241, and so on. The next step is
to work out the mentions of the risings of Sothis which are expressed in
terms of the vague, or calendar, year, and, provided that the statement
of Censorinus be trustworthy and the calculations of modern investigators
be correct, it is possible to assign a date in ordinary Julian years to
such risings of Sirius.
Want of space renders it impossible to discuss here the various systems
of chronology which have been formulated by Egyptologists and others, but
the dates proposed by the principal authorities for some of the dynasties
may be thus grouped:—
DYNASTY. DATES PROPOSED.
1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6.
I 5869 5702 5613 5004 4400 3315
III 5318 5147 5058 4449 3966 2895
VI 4426 4402 4310 3703 3300 2540
XII 3703 3404 3315 2851 2466 2000
XVIII 1822 1655 1796 1703 1700 1580
XIX 1473 1326 1404 1462 1400 1320
XX 1279 1183 1195 1288 1200 1200
Of these systems the one proposed by the late Dr. H. Brugsch (No. 5)
agrees best with the general evidence of the monuments as to the length
of the period of Dynastic civilization; it is therefore used, with some
modification of the dates of the XVIIIth dynasty, in this book. It has
been declared that the intervals which he placed between the VIth and the
XIIth, and the XIIth and the XVIIIth dynasties are too long, but, on the
other hand, many objections can be urged against the reductions recently
suggested. It is proposed to reduce the date given by Brugsch for Menes,
B.C. 4400, to B.C. 3315; but there is no evidence in support of the
reduction. The view has been steadily growing for years that some of
the dates proposed by Brugsch for the kings of the XVIIIth dynasty must
be reduced, and as this view is supported by the evidence derived from
the recently published Babylonian Chronicles, and the general testimony
of recently excavated monuments, the dates of the reigns of the early
kings of that dynasty may well be brought down nearly one hundred years.
The other evidence on the point, being of an astronomical character,
can only be dealt with by experts. Egyptian chronology is a difficult
subject, chiefly because of an insufficiency of facts about the reigns
of the kings of the VIIth-XIth, and the XIIIth-XVIIth dynasties. Every
year, however, witnesses the removal of a certain number of difficulties,
and as long as excavations are made in Egypt a steady increase in the
knowledge of the subject may reasonably be hoped for.
CHAPTER X.
THE HISTORY OF EGYPT.
Palaeolithic Period.
The only remains of this Period in the British Museum are =flint axes=,
borers, scrapers, etc., typical examples of which are exhibited in
Table-case M in the Third Egyptian Room.
Neolithic Period.
Towards the end of this Period Egypt was divided into =two kingdoms=,
of the South and of the North; of the kings of the latter a few names
are known from the Palermo Stele, _e.g._, =Seka=, =Khaȧu=, =Tȧu=, =Thesh
Neheb=, =Uatch-nār= or =Uatch-ȧnt=, =Mekha=, etc. No date can be assigned
to the rule of these kings, but they probably all reigned before B.C.
4500. Whilst Egypt was divided into two kingdoms the country was invaded,
probably more than once, by a people who made their way thither from the
East, or South-East, and settled as conquerors in the Nile Valley and
Delta. They brought with them a civilization superior to the African, and
appear to have introduced wheat, barley, the sheep, the art of writing,
a superior kind of brickmaking, etc. After a time, length unknown, there
arose a king who succeeded in uniting the Kingdoms of the North and South
under his sway; that king was =Menȧ= or =Menes=.
DYNASTIC PERIOD—ANCIENT EMPIRE.
First Dynasty. From the city of This.
_About_ B.C. 4400.
=Menȧ=, the Menes of the Greeks, was the first dynastic king of Egypt,
and has been identified by some with king =Āḥa= 𓂚, whose tomb was
discovered in 1897 at Abydos. Nothing is known of his reign from the
monuments, but a tradition preserved by Greek writers declared that he
altered the course of the Nile, and so redeemed from the river a large
tract upon which he built the first city of Memphis. Among the objects in
the British Museum bearing the name of =Āḥa= may be mentioned some =clay
sealings= for small wine-jars, a portion of an =ivory box=, and parts of
two =ebony tablets=. (Table-case L in the Third Egyptian Room.)
𓅃𓉘𓂚𓊂 ĀḤA.
𓅃𓉘𓆢𓍋𓊂 NĀR-MER.
=Tetȧ=, or =Ȧtet=, was the successor of Menȧ, according to the King
Lists. In recent years this king has been identified by some with a king
whose name is provisionally read =Nār-mer=; others, however, take the
view that Nār-mer is one of the names of Betchau, a king of the IInd
dynasty.
𓅃𓉘𓏄𓊂 KHENT.
𓅃𓉘𓆓𓊂 TCHA.
The next two kings were =Ȧteth= and =Ȧta=, but of their reigns nothing
is known; according to some authorities we are to identify King =Khent=
with the former, and King =Tcha= with the latter. There are several
small objects in the British Museum inscribed with the name of =Tcha=
(Table-case L), and several jar-sealings (Wall-case on Landing).
𓅃𓉘𓂧𓈖𓊂 ṬEN.
The reign of the next king =Semti= 𓈉𓈉, or =Ṭen=, formerly known as
=Ḥesepti= 𓈈𓈈, was important. A legend preserved in the Book of the Dead
states that the short form of the LXIVth Chapter of that work was “found”
during his reign; and on the tablet exhibited in Table-case L, Third
Egyptian Room (No. 124), the king is represented dancing before a god,
who wears the White Crown and is seated within a shrine placed on the top
of a flight of steps. As in later texts Osiris is called “the god on the
steps,” and the White Crown is one of his most characteristic emblems,
we are probably justified in identifying the figure in the shrine with
that of Osiris. It is probable that the =worship of Osiris= assumed an
importance in the reign of Semti hitherto unknown, and that it was at
this period that the cult of this god began to displace the =worship
of ancestors=, which, up to that time, appears to have been general.
It is clear that tradition assigned to his reign a period of literary
activity. The name of Semti also occurs in connexion with a recipe in a
=book of medicine= for driving the disease _ukhedu_ out of the body. (For
objects bearing his name see Table-case L, and for wine-jar sealings see
Wall-cases on Landing.)
[Illustration: King Semti dancing before the god who wears the White
Crown.]
The sixth king of this dynasty was =Āṭȧb=, or =Ātchȧb=, otherwise known
as Merpeba, or =Merbapen=. (For a number of objects bearing his names see
Table-case L and Wall-cases on Landing.)
The next king, according to the King Lists, was called =Semerkha=, or Ḥu,
or Nekht, or =Semsu=, the Semempses of Manetho. (For objects bearing his
name see Table-case L and Wall-cases on Landing.)
𓅃𓉘𓈎𓂝𓊂 QĀ.
This dynasty was brought to a close by the reign of a king called =Qebḥ=
in the later Lists; the correct form of his name is, however, =Sen=, and
his Horus name is =Qā=. (For objects bearing his name see Table-case L
and Wall-cases on Landing.)
Second Dynasty. From the city of This.
_About_ B.C. 4133.
The first king of the IInd dynasty was =Khā-Sekhemui=, 𓈍𓌂𓌂 other names
of whom were =Betchau=, Neter-baiu, and =Besh=. From the reliefs on the
statues of this king which were recovered from his tomb at Abydos, we
may assume that Besh fought many battles, and conquered his enemies.
From a design on one of his vases we learn that he was probably the
first to enclose his personal name within the _Shennu_ sign 𓍶, which
was afterwards elongated into the _cartouche_ 𓍷 when royal names became
longer. In this design we see the vulture-goddess Nekhebit uniting the
South and the North, and holding in one claw the sign 𓍶, with the name
Besh written within it thus 𓃀𓈚. Betchau, or Besh, has been identified by
some with Nār-mer. There are no objects bearing the name of Nār-mer in
the British Museum, but a good cast of a green slate shield of Betchau
is exhibited in Wall-case 10 on the Landing of the North-West Staircase.
The designs on this remarkable object are reproduced in the _Guide to
the First and Second Egyptian Rooms_, p. 40 ff. The objects found in the
tomb of Besh prove that the Egyptians were, even at this early period,
skilled in stone-cutting, statue-making, and working in metals, and that
their religious and social institutions must have been established for
many generations. (See the =copper vases= and wine-jar sealings on the
Landing, and the interesting group of objects, fragments of vases, etc.,
in Table-case L.)
Besh was followed by =Ḥetep-Sekhemui= 𓊵𓌂𓌂, of whom we have a fragment
of a stone vase (Table-case L, No. 162); and by =Rā-neb= and =En-neter=
(see the fragment of a bowl in Table-case L, No. 163). During the reign
of Rā-neb, who was also called =Ka-kau=, the worship of the =Apis Bull=
of Memphis, the =Mnevis Bull= of Heliopolis, and the =Ram of Mendes= was
either reconstituted, or additional shrines were founded or old ones
repaired. (For typical figures of these gods see Table-case H, Third
Egyptian Room.) After =Uatchnes=, of whom nothing is known, came a king
who as the representative of Horus was called =Sekhem-ȧb=, and as the
representative of Set, =Perȧbsen=. In Table-case L are a jar-sealing and
a fragment of a stone vase, and in the Wall-case on the Landing a fine,
hard grey granite stele, inscribed with his =Set name=.
[Illustration: Slab from the tomb of Sherȧ, a Priest of the Ka of Senṭ, a
king of the IInd dynasty, B.C. 4000.
[Vestibule, South Wall, No. 1.]]
=Senṭ= or =Senṭȧ= is mentioned in connexion with a certain medical work
which was either written or edited in the reign of Semti, the fifth king
of the Ist dynasty. Nothing is known of Senṭ’s reign, but we find from
the tomb of =Sherȧ=, a priest, that services were performed on behalf
of his Ka or “Double” and that of his predecessor Perȧbsen. Sherȧ the
priest probably lived at the end of the IInd, or at the beginning of the
IIIrd, dynasty. A fine slab from his tomb is exhibited in the Egyptian
Vestibule, No. 1.
Of the remaining kings of the IInd dynasty, =Neferkarā=, =Neferkaseker=,
=Ḥetchefa=, and =Bebi=, or =Tchatchai=, their names only have survived.
Third Dynasty. From Memphis.
_About_ B.C. 3966.
The greatest of the kings of this dynasty was =Tcheser=, or =Tcheser-sa=,
who is renowned as the builder of the famous =Step Pyramid= at Ṣaḳḳârah.
This pyramid is about 200 feet high, and has six “steps,” 38, 36, 34½,
33, 31, and 29½ feet high respectively; the lengths of its sides at the
base are: north and south, 352 feet, east and west 396 feet. A tomb of
Tcheser, who has been identified with this king, was discovered at Bêt
Khallâf in 1901. Details of his reign are wanting, but, according to a
legend preserved on a rock stele on the Island of Sâḥal in the First
Cataract, a =Seven Years’ Famine= came upon Egypt in his time, and want
and misery were universal. Greek tradition ascribed to Tcheser great
medical knowledge, and he is said to have been a patron of literature.
Among the objects of this king in the British Museum may be mentioned
the fragment of a slate vase (Table-case L, No. 169), and the very
interesting small =glazed tiles= (Nos. 208, 209, in the same case; and
see Table-case K in the Fourth Egyptian Room, Nos. 863-869), which were
found inlaid in the wall of the doorway in the pyramid of King Tcheser.
The other kings of this dynasty, =Ḥen-Nekhtor=, =Sa-Nekht=,
=Tcheser-Tetȧ=, =Setches=, and =Nefer-ka-Rā Ḥuni= were unimportant; the
last named is mentioned in the famous Book of Moral Precepts known as
the =Prisse Papyrus=, where he is said to have been the predecessor of
the great king Seneferu. With the ending of the IIIrd dynasty the period
of Egyptian History called the =Archaïc Period= closes. During these
dynasties civilization had advanced greatly in Egypt. The habitations
of the living were now built of brick, with wooden roofs supported on
pillars; and the dead were provided with stone-built tombs, called
=maṣṭabas=, in which they were laid at full length, instead of in
contracted positions. The =art= of =writing= had been introduced, and
the beginning of the hieroglyphic system invented. Sculptors and metal
workers had attained considerable skill, and potters had learned how
to apply glaze. The progress made during the Archaïc Period can be
successfully studied by the visitor from the valuable collection of
objects exhibited in Table-case L in the Second Egyptian Room, and
in the Wall-cases on the Landing of the North-West Staircase. Special
attention should be given to the =green slate shields=, sculptured in
relief with hunting scenes, and to the fine display of =vases= and
=bowls=, in diorite, granite, porphyry, jasper, breccia, limestone,
alabaster, etc., in Wall-cases 137-142, 194-204, in the Fourth Egyptian
Room. To the same period probably belong:—1. The portion of a sculptured
stele, with the Horus name of a king, which was found at Wâdî Maghârah
in the Peninsula of Sinai (Egyptian Vestibule, No. =2=). 2. The very
interesting red granite statue, of a most archaïc character, of
=Betchmes=, a royal kinsman and axeman who was attached to the body-guard
of the king (Egyptian Vestibule, No. =3=). 3. The text on a limestone
slab in which the hieroglyphics are not divided by lines (Egyptian
Vestibule, No. =4=). 4. Relief from the tomb of Suten-ȧbu (Egyptian
Vestibule, No. =5=).
[Illustration: Relief from the tomb of Suten-ȧbu.
IIIrd or IVth dynasty, B.C. 3700.
[Vestibule, South Wall, No. 5.]]
Fourth Dynasty. From Memphis.
_About_ B.C. 3733.
With the accession of =Seneferu= one of the most important periods in
the history of Egypt opened, and it was marked by the =conquest of the
Sûdân= and the =Sinaitic Peninsula=, by the building of the =Pyramids=,
and by the production of bas-reliefs, sculptures, wall-paintings, etc.,
which for fidelity to nature and delicacy of execution were never
surpassed. Several of the earlier kings of Egypt had trade relations
with the natives of Sinai who worked the famous copper and turquoise
mines of Wâdî Maghârah; but Seneferu invaded the country and conquered
it, and cut reliefs on the rocks in which he is represented clubbing the
rebellious natives. He was the first to group four of the royal titles
within a cartouche thus: 𓍹𓆥𓅒𓎟𓌷𓏏𓅉𓋴𓄤𓂋𓅱𓍺. He also =raided the Sûdân=,
and captured, as we learn from the Palermo Stele, 7,000 men, _i.e._,
slaves, and 200,000 animals, _i.e._, oxen, cows, goats, etc. The men
were, no doubt, brought to Egypt and made to labour there on the king’s
works. During the reign of Seneferu, Egypt was invaded by certain Eastern
tribes by way of the desert; and the country seems to have suffered from
a famine. Seneferu was probably buried in the =Pyramid= of =Mêdûm=, which
is called the “False Pyramid,” and is of an unusual shape; it is about
115 feet high, and consists of three stages, which are 70, 20, and 25
feet high respectively. He also built a pyramid at Dahshûr. His queen was
=Mert-tefs= 𓌻𓂋𓏏𓏏𓆑𓋴, who survived him and was living during the reigns
of Khufu and Khāfrā; a limestone false door from her tomb is exhibited in
the Egyptian Vestibule, No. =7=. The governor of Seneferu’s pyramid at
Mêdûm was Ka-nefer (for his sepulchral stele see the Egyptian Vestibule,
No. =8=), to whose memory a pious son set up the memorial tablet No. =9=.
[Illustration: King Khufu (Cheops).
[Vestibule, South Wall, No. 13.]]
Seneferu was succeeded by =Khufu=, the =Cheops= of the Greeks, the son
of =Shaȧru= 𓍹𓈚𓄿𓁹𓂋𓅱𓍺, the greatest king of the dynasty; he is said to
have reigned sixty-three years. He may have been a great warrior, like
Seneferu; and a relief on the rocks at Wâdî Maghârah in the Sinaitic
Peninsula represents him in the act of clubbing a typical foe in the
presence of the ibis-headed god Thoth. He was, however, a far greater
builder, and he has been known to fame for some thousands of years as
the builder of the =Great Pyramid= (see =Plate XX=). This wonderful
building, which the Egyptians called “Khut,” 𓅜𓐍𓏏𓉴, stands on the edge
of a ledge of rock forming the “skirt” (hence the name _Gîzah_) of the
desert, on the western bank of the Nile, about 5 miles from the river,
near the village of Al-Gîzah. It covers an area of 12½ acres. It is
451 feet high, and the flat space at the top is about 30 feet square.
The length of each side at the base is 755 feet; but before the outer
layers of stone were removed and used in Cairo for building material
each side was 20 feet longer, and the pyramid itself was about 30
feet higher. It was originally covered with inscribed slabs of smooth
limestone or polished granite, and it is calculated that it at present
contains 85,000,000 cubic feet of masonry. The illustration on page 197
illustrates the general arrangement of the chambers and corridors inside
the pyramid, and the corridor and mummy chamber beneath it. The stone
used in building was quarried at Ṭura, on the eastern bank of the Nile,
about 8 or 9 miles from the pyramid site. It was rolled down to the
river on a made road, and ferried across in barges, and then rolled up
the embanked road and causeway to the rock. According to Diodorus (i,
63), the building occupied at least twenty years, and some 300,000 men
were employed in the work. Herodotus says (ii, 64) that ten years were
consumed in the quarrying of the stone, and ten more in building, and
that the men worked in gangs of ten thousand, each gang working three
months at a time. A group of three =casing stones= from the Great Pyramid
are exhibited in the Egyptian Vestibule, Nos. =10-12=, and also a plaster
cast of a =statue= of =Khufu= (No. =13=). Attached to the Great Pyramid
was a funerary temple in which commemorative services were performed;
and either towards the end of the king’s reign, or soon after his death,
one of the chief priests in it was =Ka-ṭep=, who held the office of
“Prefect of the _sa_” 𓌂𓅓𓎂, _i.e._, of the “fluid of life.” Ka-ṭep was a
“royal kinsman,” and his wife =Ḥetep-ḥeres= was a “royal kinswoman.” For
the statues of Ka-ṭep and his wife, see page 177, and for “false doors”
from his maṣṭaba tomb, see Egyptian Vestibule, Nos. =14-17=, and for his
=censers=, see Wall-case 200 in the Fourth Egyptian Room, Nos. 52, 53.
Another official who flourished about this period was =Sheshȧ=, from
whose tomb came the limestone stele in the Egyptian Vestibule, No. =18=.
[Illustration: PLATE XX.
The Great Pyramid and Sphinx.]
[Illustration: Section of the Great Pyramid of Gîzah, built by Khufu
(Cheops), showing the internal passages and chambers, and the underground
corridor and sarcophagus chamber.]
During the reign of Khufu a large number of fine tombs were built round
about the Great Pyramid, and in some of them fine monolithic sarcophagi
were placed. An excellent idea of this class of monument may be gained
from an examination of the cast of the =sarcophagus of Khufu-ānkh=
(Egyptian Vestibule, No. =19=).
Here, because the monument is associated with the name of Khufu in the
inscription of Thothmes IV, must be mentioned the =Sphinx=, in Egyptian
Ḥu 𓎛𓅱. The early history of this wonderful man-headed lion is unknown,
but it seems that some work upon the rock out of which it was fashioned
was undertaken by Khufu. Under the XIIth dynasty the headdress, called
_nemmes_, was cut, and it is possible that an attempt was made to give
the face some resemblance to that of Ȧmen-em-ḥāt III, or one of his
predecessors, about the same time. At a later period the Sphinx was
identified with Rā-Harmachis, probably under the influence of an ancient
tradition which connected it with the Sun-god. It is 150 feet long and 70
feet high; the head is 30 feet long and the face 14 feet wide. Originally
the face was painted a bright red, and traces of the colour are still
visible. Traditions and superstitions have gathered about it in all ages,
and it is probable that the rock out of which it was made was regarded
with veneration in primitive times. In the Middle Ages the natives
believed that the Sphinx kept the sands of the Western Desert from
swallowing up the village of Gîzah. A portion of the painted limestone
=uraeus=, or asp, =from the forehead= and a portion of the =beard of the
Sphinx= are exhibited in the Egyptian Vestibule, Nos. =20= and =21=.
[Illustration: King Khāfrā (Chephren).]
Khufu was succeeded by =Ṭeṭ-f-Rā=, of whom nothing is known; and he again
was succeeded by =Khā-f-Rā=, the =Chephren= of the Greek writers, who is
famous chiefly as the builder of the =Second Pyramid= at Gîzah, called in
Egyptian “Ur” 𓅨𓉴, _i.e._, the “Great.” Its height is about 450 feet, the
length of each side at the base is 700 feet, and it is said to contain
about 60,000,000 cubic feet of masonry, weighing some 4,883,000 tons.
It was first opened by Belzoni (born 1778, died 1823) in 1816. It was
originally cased with polished stone, but only towards the top has the
casing been preserved. The illustration on page 171 shows the arrangement
of the corridor and sarcophagus chamber, which is very different from
that of the Great Pyramid. A funerary chapel was attached to the pyramid;
and among those who ministered in it was =Rutchek=, the chief of the
libationer priests, who calls himself a “friend of Pharaoh” 𓋴𓍋𓈖𓉐𓉻. (For
an architrave and an inscription from his tomb see Egyptian Vestibule,
Nos. =22= and =23=.) The Pyramid itself was in charge of the “royal
kinsman” =Thethȧ=, who was the royal steward, and “overseer of the
throne of Pharaoh,” and priest of Hathor and Neith. Two fine doors from
the maṣṭaba tomb of Thethȧ are exhibited in the Northern Egyptian Gallery
(Bay 1, Nos. =24= and =25=), together with a short inscription referring
to the burial of his father and mother (No. =26=). The perfection to
which the sculptor’s art had attained at this period is well illustrated
by the casts of =statues= of =Chephren=, from the hard stone originals in
the Museum in Cairo, exhibited in the Egyptian Vestibule, Nos. =27= and
=28=. A fragment of an alabaster vessel from the king’s tomb, bearing his
name, is in Wall-case 138 in the Fourth Egyptian Room, No. 56.
[Illustration: King Menkaurā (Mykerinos).
[Vestibule, South Wall, No. 30.]]
=Men-kau-Rā=, the Mykerinos of Greek writers, reigned, it is said,
about sixty-three years; no details of his reign are known, and he is
chiefly famous as the builder of the =Third Pyramid= at Gîzah, which the
Egyptians called “Ḥer” 𓁷𓂋𓉴. This pyramid is between 210 and 215 feet
high, and the length of each side at the base is about 350 feet. The
illustration on page 202 shows the position of the corridors and the
mummy chamber, which is 60 feet below the surface of the ground, and
also indicates the damage which was done to the pyramid by the Khalîfa
Al-Mâmûn, who, believing that it was full of gold and precious stones,
tried to demolish it. The pyramid was originally cased with slabs of
granite, many of which still remain in position. In the mummy chamber
were discovered a =stone sarcophagus=, a =wooden coffin=, the cover of
which was inscribed with the king’s names and titles and an extract from
a religious text, and the =remains= of a =mummy= wrapped in a cloth.
These were despatched by ship to England in 1838, but the ship was
wrecked, and the sarcophagus was lost; the fragments of the coffin and
the mummy were recovered, and are now exhibited in =Case B= in the First
Egyptian Room. In the reign of Men-kau-Rā certain Chapters of the Book
of the Dead were revised or composed by =Ḥeruṭāṭāf=, a son of Khufu,
or Cheops, who was renowned for his learning. A cast of a =statue= of
=Men-kau-Rā=, and a sepulchral stele of =Khennu=, a “royal kinsman” and
councillor of the king, are exhibited in the Egyptian Vestibule, Nos.
=30= and =31=.
In the reign of Men-kau-Rā was born a child to whom the name of
=Ptaḥ-Shepses= was given, and who was a playfellow of the princes and
princesses in the palace. In the reign of the next king, =Shepseskaf=,
he married the royal princess =Maāt-khā= 𓌷𓂝𓏏𓈍𓂝, and lived on through
the reigns of Userkaf, Saḥu-Rā, Nefer-ȧri-ka-Rā, and two or three other
kings of the Vth dynasty. Under each king he filled a number of important
offices, and at his death was probably considerably more than 100 years
old. He was buried in a fine large maṣṭaba tomb at Ṣaḳḳârah, from which
the great door in the Egyptian Vestibule, No. =32=, was taken. The façade
is inscribed in fine bold hieroglyphics, and the sculptured decorations
on the sides are good examples of the best funerary reliefs of the
period. The upper parts of each of the main perpendicular lines of text
contained the name of a king, but of these only two now remain.
[Illustration: Section of the Third Pyramid of Gîzah, built by Menkaurā
(Mykerinos), showing the extent of the portions removed.]
[Illustration: PLATE XXI.
An Egyptian official of the IVth dynasty. Cast of the wooden statue of
the Shêkh al-Balad, or “Shêkh of the Village.”
[Egyptian Vestibule, No. 35.]]
The beauty of the =statues of the IVth dynasty= is well illustrated by
the painted limestone portrait statue of =Ȧn-kheft-ka=, a royal kinsman,
which was found at Dahshûr (Bay 1, No. =33=), and the headless statue of
an official found at Gîzah (Vestibule, No. =34=). The standing figures
of the =Shêkh al-Balad= (see =Plate XXI=) and the =Scribe= are wonderful
examples of fidelity to nature (see the casts in the Egyptian Vestibule,
Nos. =35= and =36=). The finest bas-relief of the period is that from the
tomb of =Rā-ḥetep= at Mêdûm (Egyptian Vestibule, No. =40=); and the wall
decorations of the ordinary maṣṭaba tomb of this time are illustrated
by the sculptured slabs from the tombs of =Ȧri= (Egyptian Vestibule,
Nos. =41-43=), and =Ȧfȧ=, a steward and head-gardener (No. =44=), and
=Ānkh-ḥaf=, the scribe (No. =45=), etc.
Fifth Dynasty. From Elephantine.
_About_ B.C. 3566.
The kings of this dynasty are: =Userkaf=, =Saḥu-Rā=, =Kakaȧ=,
=Nefer-ȧri-ka-Rā=, =Shepses-ka-Rā=, =Khā-nefer-Rā=, =User-en-Rā Ȧn=,
=Men-kau-Ḥeru=, =Ṭeṭ-ka-Rā Ȧssȧ=, =Unȧs=. The reigns of all these kings,
from a historical point of view, are comparatively unimportant. During
the reign of =Userkaf= a great development of the cult of Rā took
place in Egypt, and the worship of the Sun-god, according to the form
established by the priests of Heliopolis, became dominant in the land.
In the reign of Userkaf, or in that of one of his immediate successors,
the title of “son of Rā” was added to the other royal titles, and, as
the son of the Sun-god, the king took a special name. Userkaf built
at Abû-Ṣîr the pyramid called “Āb-ȧst” 𓀆𓊨𓊨𓊨𓉴. =Saḥu-Rā= appears to
have made a raid into Sinai, for he is represented in a rock-relief at
Wâdî Maghârah in the traditional attitude of clubbing a native of the
country. He built, at Abû-Ṣîr, the pyramid called “Khā-ba” 𓈍𓅡𓉴. For an
alabaster vase inscribed with the Horus name of this king, =Neb-khāu=,
see Wall-case 138, No. 58; and there is in the British Museum also a
cylinder seal inscribed with his name (No. 48,023). The next important
king of this dynasty is =User-en-Rā=, whose name, as son of Rā, was =Ȧn=.
He carried on mining operations in Sinai, and probably suppressed revolts
there among the natives; but details are wanting. He built at Abû-Ṣîr the
pyramid called “Men-ȧst” 𓏠𓈖𓊨𓊨𓊨𓉴. From this, probably, came the fine grey
granite funerary vase inscribed with his name 𓆥𓍹𓇳𓈖𓄊𓋴𓂋𓍺. (See Fourth
Egyptian Room, Wall-case 194, No. 51.) Usertsen I, a king of the XIIth
dynasty, wishing for some reason to commemorate User-en-Rā, dedicated
to him a black =granite statue=, the lower portion of which is in the
Egyptian Vestibule, No. =48=. On one side of the throne is the royal
prenomen, and on the other the nomen, which is repeated on the king’s
belt. A plaster cast of a stone statue of User-en-Rā is also exhibited in
the Vestibule, No. =49=.
[Illustration: King User-en-Rā Ȧn, B.C. 3433.
[Vestibule, South Wall, No. 49.]]
=Ȧssȧ=, the next king of importance, worked the quarries in Wâdî
Ḥammâmât, near the old high road which ran from Ḳena on the Nile, in
Upper Egypt, to a place near the modern Ḳuṣêr (Cosseir) on the Red Sea,
and the copper and turquoise mines in the Peninsula of Sinai. He built
at Abû-Ṣîr the pyramid called “Nefer” 𓄤𓉴. During the reign of Ȧssȧ a
development of trade between Egypt and the Sûdân ensued, and an Egyptian
official called Ba-ur-ṭeṭ succeeded in reaching the “Land of the Spirits”
and bringing thence a pygmy _ṭenḳ_ 𓂧𓈖𓎼𓄔𓁌, whom he gave to the king. The
pygmy actually came from the land of Punt, which tradition declares was
the original home of the Egyptians. He was employed to dance the “dance
of the gods” before the king. It seems to have been the custom in still
earlier times to import pygmies from the Sûdân, for skeletons of two were
found near the tomb of Semempses, a king of the Ist dynasty, at Abydos.
=Unȧs=, the last king of the Vth dynasty, the Onnos of Manetho, carried
on the usual mining operations, and, it is said, built a temple to Hathor
at Memphis. He is chiefly famous as the builder of the first of a very
remarkable series of pyramids at Ṣaḳḳârah, the corridors and chamber
walls of which were covered with series of formulae of the greatest value
for the study of the Egyptian Religion. The pyramid of Unȧs was about
60 feet high, and the length of each side at the base was 220 feet; in
front of its door stood a portico which rested on granite columns with
palm-leaf capitals. One of these columns now stands in the Egyptian
Vestibule, No. =50=. (For an alabaster vase from his mummy chamber,
inscribed with his name and titles 𓍹𓅭𓇳𓃹𓈖𓇋𓋴𓍺, see Wall-case 138 in the
Fourth Egyptian Room, No. 57.)
The funerary reliefs of the Vth dynasty are very fine. Those worthy of
note are: a “false door,” from the tomb of =Khnemu-ḥetep=, a councillor
and libationer and an officer of the palace of =Userkaf= (Egyptian
Vestibule, No. =51=); a portion of the façade of the tomb of =Neka-ānkh=,
a priest who ministered in the tomb of =Userkaf= (No. =52=); a massive
“false door” from the tomb of =Ȧsȧ-ānkh=, from Ṣaḳḳârah (No. =53=);
a slab sculptured in low relief with a figure of the royal kinswoman
=Thethȧ= (No. =60=); and a slab from the tomb of =Khnemu-ḥetep=, a chief
of Nekheb (No. =61=).
Sixth Dynasty. From Memphis.
_About_ B.C. 3300.
The kings of this dynasty were:—
1. =Tetȧ.=
2. =Userka-Rā.=
3. =Rā-meri Pepi I.=
4. =Mer-en-Rā.=
5. =Nefer-ka-Rā Pepi II.=
6. =Mer-en-Rā Tchefau(?)-em-sa-f.=
=Tetȧ=, the first king of this dynasty, was neither a warrior nor a great
builder; and details of his reign are wanting. He built a pyramid at
Ṣaḳḳârah, the interior of the chambers and corridors of which are covered
with inscriptions of a religious character; it is commonly known as the
“Prison Pyramid.” Of the monuments of this king in the British Museum
may be mentioned a =grant of land= to the god Khenti Ȧmenti of Abydos
(Egyptian Vestibule, No. =74=); an alabaster =vase= from his pyramid,
inscribed with his name and titles (Wall-case 138 in the Fourth Egyptian
Room, Nos. 59 and 60); and a fine breccia =bull=, to which the royal
names and titles have been added in recent times (No. 61).
Rā-meri, =or Pepi I=, was probably the greatest king of this dynasty.
He worked the granite quarries at Elephantine, or Syene, and in the
Wâdî Ḥammâmât, and he established his power in the Peninsula of Sinai,
where he ruled the local tribes with a strong hand. His reign was one of
industrial progress; and trade and handicrafts flourished throughout the
country under his fostering care. Under the leadership of a favourite
official named =Unȧ=, he despatched a very large army composed of men
drawn from all parts of the Sûdân, to put down a wide-spread revolt which
had broken out among the dwellers in the Eastern Desert called “the Āamu,
who lived on the sand.” Unȧ gained a decisive victory, and was promoted
to very high honours. Pepi I built a pyramid at Ṣaḳḳârah, the walls of
the chambers and corridors of which were covered with inscriptions of a
religious character; from this comes the fine alabaster =vase=, inscribed
with his name and titles, in Wall-case 138 in the Fourth Egyptian Room,
No. 66. (For two fine “false doors” from the tomb of =Qarta=, a high
official of Pepi I, see Egyptian Vestibule, Nos. =75=, =76=.)
Pepi I was succeeded by =Mer-en-Rā I Tchefau(?)-em-sa-f=, who carried
on the works begun by his father, and built a pyramid at Ṣaḳḳârah,
from which came the fine alabaster vase in Wall-case 138 in the Fourth
Egyptian Room, No. 66. He was succeeded by =Nefer-ka-Rā Pepi II=, who
according to tradition lived to the age of 100 years. During his reign
Egypt was in a state of prosperity, and there was great activity in trade
and handicrafts. At this time flourished the famous official =Ḥer-Khuf=,
who was the master of a caravan which traded between Egypt and the Sûdân,
which country he visited four times. On the last occasion he brought
back a =pygmy= from “the land of the Spirits,” which King Pepi II bade
him bring to Memphis. Detailed orders were sent to the effect that the
pygmy was to be watched during the day so that he might not fall into the
water, and his sleeping place was to be visited ten times each night by
properly qualified people, for, said the king: “I wish to see him more
than all the tributes of Sinai and Punt.” Other prominent traders in the
Sûdân on behalf of the king at this time were Pepi-nekht, Mekhu, who died
there, and whose body was brought back to Egypt by his son Sabben, etc.
Among the objects of the time of Pepi II may be mentioned a =portion=
of a =doorway= made by him at Abydos, and a sepulchral stele of
=Nefer-Sennȧ=, from his tomb at Denderah (Egyptian Vestibule, Nos. =77=
and =78=). Among the priests who ministered in the chapel attached to
the pyramid of Pepi II was =Heb-peri=, whose stele is exhibited in the
Egyptian Vestibule, No. =79=. The most important monument of his reign
is the =maṣṭaba tomb= of =Ur-ȧri-en-Ptaḥ=, a royal kinsman and scribe,
libationer, and councillor, from Ṣaḳḳârah, which has been re-built in the
=Assyrian Saloon= (No. =80=). It is a good typical example of the tomb
of noblemen and high officials of the period. The painted reliefs are
interesting, and are typical of the wall decorations of tombs towards the
close of the VIth dynasty. The inscriptions show that both Ur-ȧri-en-Ptaḥ
and his wife were buried in the chamber beneath the maṣṭaba; the list of
offerings, some 90 in number, is exceptionally long.
Of the last king of the VIth dynasty, =Mer-en-Rā II Tchefa-em-sa-f=,
nothing is known.
The funerary art of this period is well illustrated by the stelae and
“false doors” of: =Sennu= (Bay 1, No. =81=), =Ptaḥ-ḥetep=, a priest
(No. =82=), =Erṭā-en-ānkh=, a royal kinsman and councillor (No. =83=),
=Uthenȧa=, whose “good name” was Penȧ (a very interesting relief, No.
=84=), =Ȧṭu=, a scribe and superintendent of the “Great House of the
Six” (No. =85=), =Behenu=, a priestess of Hathor (No. =88=), and a
portion of a slab from the =roof= of =a tomb=, with flutings, which are
probably intended to represent tree trunks (No. =90=). All these, with
the exception of No. 81, are in the Egyptian Vestibule. To this period
also probably belong the =libation tanks=, and =tablet for offerings= of
=Ȧntḳes=, =Khart-en-Khennu=, and =Senb= (Bay 14, Nos. =93-95=).
Besides the larger remains of this period, the =scarabs= in the
Table-cases in the Fourth Egyptian Room should be examined. Several of
them are inscribed with names of the kings of the first six dynasties,
but it is not certain how many, or if any, of such scarabs are
contemporaneous, and for this reason they have not been described in
the preceding paragraphs. On the other hand, of the fine collection of
=scarabs of officials=, inscribed with their titles, scores certainly
belong to the period of the first half of the Ancient Empire, and are of
the greatest interest and historical value.
The monuments prove that between the IVth and VIth dynasties the
Egyptians lived in a state of serfdom, and that they regarded their king
as the owner of both their souls and bodies. He was the very essence of
God in human form upon earth, and his power was absolute; even in the
Other World his authority was held to be equal to that of the great gods
of the dead. The Pharaohs of this period were masters of the Peninsula of
Sinai, and of the Eastern Desert between Egypt and the Red Sea; and the
memory of the raid which Seneferu made in the Sûdân probably induced the
warlike tribes of that country to permit Egyptian caravans to pass from
Syene to the Blue and White Niles unmolested.
At the close of the VIth dynasty a period of general disorder appears to
have set in, the chiefs of cities such as Suten-ḥenen (Herakleopolis),
Asyûṭ and Thebes contending among themselves for supremacy. Of the
history of this period nothing is known. According to Manetho (version of
Africanus) we have:—
Seventh Dynasty. From Memphis.
Seventy kings in seventy days.
Eighth Dynasty. From Memphis.
Twenty-seven kings in 146 years.
The Tablet of Abydos supplies after Neter-ka-Rā, the name of the last
king of the VIth dynasty, the following sixteen names, which represent,
presumably, the kings of the VIIIth dynasty:—
=1.= =Men-ka-Rā.=
=2.= =Nefer-ka-Rā.=
=3.= =Nefer-ka-Rā Nebi.=
=4.= =Ṭeṭ-ka-Rā ...=
=5.= =Nefer-ka-Rā Khenṭu.=
=6.= =Mer-en-Ḥeru.=
=7.= =Senefer-ka.=
=8.= =N-ka-Rā.=
=9.= =Nefer-ka-Rā Tererl.=
=10.= =Nefer-ka-Ḥeru.=
=11.= =Nefer-ka-Rā Pepi senb.=
=12.= =Senefer-ka Ȧnnu.=
=13.= =... kau-Rā.=
=14.= =Nefer-kau-Rā.=
=15.= =Nefer-kau-Ḥeru.=
=16.= =Nefer-ȧri-ka-Rā.=
Under the rule of these kings the princes of Herakleopolis succeeded in
gaining their independence, and thus the seat of the government of Egypt
was removed from Memphis up the river to Suten-ḥenen, the modern Ahnâs,
about 60 miles south of Cairo.
Ninth Dynasty.
Nineteen kings in 409 years.
Tenth Dynasty.
Nineteen kings in 185 years.
The Turin Papyrus contains a series of fragmentary names, which may
represent those of the kings of one or the other of these dynasties; the
fourth of these is =Khati=, whose name is also found on a rock in the
First Cataract, and on a bronze bowl in the Museum of the Louvre in Paris.
Among the kings of the =Tenth Dynasty= may be placed king =Ka-meri-Rā= in
whose reign lived =Khati=, prince of Siut, or Asyûṭ. About this time war
appears to have been going on between the princes of Herakleopolis and
the princes of Thebes, and the prince of Siut sent troops to support the
Herakleopolitans against the Thebans. For a time the Thebans were beaten,
but at length they gained the mastery over the princes of the North, and
founded a new dynasty.
Of the period represented by dynasties VII-X there are no monuments in
the British Museum, with perhaps the exception of a few scarabs.
Eleventh Dynasty. From Thebes.
_About_ B.C. 2600.
The founder of this dynasty was, most probably, =Ȧntefȧ=, a local
chief of the Thebaïd, whose titles were ERPĀ 𓂋𓊪𓂝 and ḤĀ 𓄂, and “great
prince of the nome of the Thebaïd, the satisfier of the heart of the
king, the controller of the Gates of the Cataract, the support of the
South, making the two banks of the Nile to live, chief of the Priests,
the loyal servant of the Great God, the Lord of Heaven.” He was probably
succeeded by two or three chiefs of similar name who made no claim to
the sovereignty of the Northern Kingdom, which was then in the hands
of the princes of Herakleopolis. The first of Ȧntefȧ’s successors who
claimed to be “King of the South and of the North,” and “Lord of the two
Lands,” _i.e._, all Egypt, was =Uaḥ-ānkh Ȧntef-āa=, who was succeeded
by =Nekht-neb-ṭep-nefer Ȧntef=, and he was followed by =Sānkh-ȧb-taui
Menthu-ḥetep I=. These facts are derived from the important stele of
=Ȧntef=, a priestly official, which is exhibited in the Northern Egyptian
Gallery, Bay 4, No. =99= (see =Plate XXII=). Among the officials who
flourished in the reign of Uaḥ-Ȧntef and his son was =Thethȧ=, whose
sepulchral stele, inscribed with a biographical notice, is exhibited in
the same Bay (No. =100=). From his tomb also came the inscription which
formed the façade (No. =101=), and the reliefs (Nos. =102=, =103=), on
which are represented members of the family of the deceased bearing
offerings. The order of the remaining kings of the dynasty is doubtful.
Several of them were called =Menthu-ḥetep=, and they may be distinguished
by their prenomens thus:—
=Neb-ḥapt-Rā Menthu-ḥetep.=
=Neb-taui-Rā Menthu-ḥetep.=
=Neb-ḥap-Rā Menthu-ḥetep.=
=S-ānkh-ka-Rā Menthu-ḥetep.=
The first of these kings, =Neb-ḥapt-Rā Menthu-ḥetep=, probably
Menthu-ḥetep II, appears to have been an able ruler, who reigned for
about 46 years. He was a great warrior, and established his authority
from one end of Egypt to the other. Among his other achievements was the
pacifying of the Āamu, or the tribes of the Eastern Desert and Sinai.
He built a fine temple at Dêr al-Baḥarî, the remains of which have been
recently discovered and excavated. This building is unique in being
associated with a pyramid-tomb. The fragments of the painted limestone
reliefs which have been found among its ruins lack nothing in finish,
fidelity to nature, and execution, whilst in design and general treatment
they may be compared with some of the best funerary reliefs of the Vth
dynasty. In the Northern Gallery, Bay 3, an interesting collection of
such fragments is exhibited, and worthy of note are: Head of a painted
limestone statue of Neb-ḥapt-Rā Menthu-ḥetep, wearing the crown of the
South (No. =104=); portion of a painted relief, with a figure of the king
being embraced by Rā (No. =105=); relief, with a seated figure of the
king and his prenomen 𓍹𓇳𓎟𓊤𓍺 (No. =106=); relief, with a figure of a
king grasping an Āamu foe by one leg (No. =108=); relief, with a figure
of a =hippopotamus= (No. =110=); relief, with a figure of a prince called
=Menthu-ḥetep= (No. =111=); slab, inscribed =Sma-taui=, the Horus name of
the king (No. =117=); and a portion of an inscription referring to the
overthrow of the Āamu by the king (No. =118=).
[Illustration: PLATE XXII.
Tablet of Ȧntet, an official who flourished in the reigns of three kings
of the XIth dynasty, about B.C. 2600. _Scene_: A priest making offering
to the deceased and his three wives.
[Southern Egyptian Gallery, Bay 4, No. 99.]]
[Illustration: PLATE XXIII.
Sepulchral tablet of Sebek-āa, an overseer of transport, sculptured with
scenes representing the presentation of offerings, etc.
XIth dynasty, B.C. 2600.
[Northern Egyptian Gallery, Bay 4, No. 120.]]
To the period of the XIth dynasty may be attributed the following
interesting tablets and reliefs: Relief, from the tomb of =Sebek-āa= at
Ḳurnah (see =Plate XXIII=), on which are represented the preparations for
a funeral feast, the figure of the deceased lying on his bier, etc. (Bay
4, No. =120=). The cutting of the figures and design is of a most unusual
character; and for the general treatment of the subject this stele is
probably unique. Other tablets, probably somewhat later in date, are:
Tablet of =Khensu-user=, set up by his son Seḥetep-ȧb (Bay 3, No. =121=),
tablet of =Sa-Menthu= (Bay 2, No. =122=), tablet of =Menthu-ḥetep=
(Vestibule, North Wall, No. =123=), and tablet of =Mer-shesu-Ḥeru= and
his friends (Bay 2, No. =124=). The portion of a wooden coffin inscribed
in hieratic with part of the =XVIIth Chapter= of the Book of the Dead,
in Wall-case 87 in the Second Egyptian Room, belongs to this period; the
text was written for one of the =Menthu-ḥetep= kings.
During the reign of =Sānkh-ka-Rā Menthu-ḥetep=, who was probably the
last king of the dynasty, an expedition, under the command of a general,
Ḥennu, was despatched to =Punt=, by way of the Red Sea. The object of
the expedition was to obtain a supply of =ānti= 𓂝𓈖𓅂𓈒𓏦, or =myrrh=,
which was largely used for purposes of embalming. Ḥennu succeeded in
reaching Punt, and in bringing back large quantities of all the products
of that remote country. Details of the reign of Sānkh-ka-Rā are wanting,
but with, or soon after, his death the XIth dynasty and the Ancient
Empire came to an end. The length of the period which elapsed between the
close of the VIth and the close of the XIth dynasty is unknown. Some
authorities make the interval between the VIth and the XIIth dynasty to
be about 650 years, others less than 500 years, and others less still.
The following monuments probably belong to the period which immediately
preceded the rise to supreme power of Ȧmenemḥāt I, the first king
of the XIIth dynasty: Black granite seated statue of =Menthu-āa=, or
=Āa-Menthu=, an Erpā and Ḥā Prince, son of the lady Mert (Vestibule, No.
=127=); tablet of the lady =Nefert-tu=, set up in her honour by her son
Menthu-ḥetep (Bay 1, No. =128=), and the tablets of =User= (Bay 1, No.
=129=), and =Ȧqer= (Bay 1, No. =130=). The tablet of =Ȧntef=, son of the
lady Qeḥet, or Ḥeqt, and overseer of the king’s cattle and preserves
of water fowl (Vestibule, No. =133=), and the important inscription of
=Ȧntef=, the son of the lady Mait (Bay 4, No. =134=), and the Prayer of
=N-Ȧntef-ȧqer= to Ȧnpu, lord of Sepau (Vestibule, No. =135=), are all
interesting, and are characteristic productions of this period.
CHAPTER XI.
MIDDLE EMPIRE.
Twelfth Dynasty. From Thebes.
_About_ B.C. 2466.
[Sidenote: B.C. 2466.]
=Ȧmenemḥāt I=, the first king of the XIIth dynasty, appears to have
ascended the throne after a period of anarchy, and, even after his
accession, the members of his own household conspired against him.
The king tells us, in his =Instructions=, how one night, after he
had composed himself to sleep, a number of armed men burst into his
chamber and tried to murder him. Leaping from his couch he attacked his
assailants, and put them to flight. (See Sallier Papyri I and III, and
the slice of stone No. 41 in Table-case C in the Third Egyptian Room.)
Ȧmenemḥāt drew up a survey of the country, and set boundaries to each
nome, or province, and he framed a set of regulations for the supply of
water for irrigation to the different towns. Work went on in the quarries
of Ḥammâmât and Ṭura, and the king restored the temples at Tanis,
Bubastis, Abydos, etc., and founded a temple to Ȧmen at Karnak. He built
the fortified palace of Thet-taui 𓎁𓇾𓇾𓏏𓊖, near Memphis, and a pyramid
tomb called “Qā” 𓈎𓀠𓉴, at Lisht. He invaded the Sûdân, conquered the four
great tribes there, viz., the =Mātchaiu=, the =Uauaiu=, the =Satiu=, and
the =Ḥeriu-shā=, and made himself master of their country as far as the
modern Korosko or Ibrîm (Primis). His reign was prosperous, and in his
time “no man went hungry or thirsty.” He associated his son Usertsen I
with him in the rule of the kingdom in the 20th year of his reign.
[Sidenote: B.C. 2433.]
=Usertsen I= was a great builder, and he rebuilt, or re-founded, the
famous temple of Ȧnnu, the =On= of the Bible and the Heliopolis of
classical writers, the sanctuary of the =Bull= Mer-ur (=Mnevis=). Before
the temple he set up two obelisks, the pyramidions of which were cased
in copper; the one now standing is 65 feet high. He set up an obelisk
at Begig in the Fayyûm, and carried on the works of restoration of
the temples which his father had begun. In the 43rd year of his reign
he invaded Nubia, and compelled the tribes to pay him tribute, which
the official Ȧmeni collected and brought safely to Egypt. Ȧmeni was
despatched twice subsequently to Nubia to bring back =gold= and other
products of the Sûdân. The name given to Nubia in the inscription which
records these facts is =Kash= 𓎡𓄿𓈚𓈉, hence the Biblical =Cush=, which
does not, however, mean Ethiopia in the modern sense of the term, but
Nubia. Usertsen I built a fort and a temple at Behen, the modern Wâdî
Ḥalfah, and appointed a “Governor of the South” to rule over Nubia,
or the Northern Sûdân. The old copper mines in the Wâdî Maghârah were
reopened, and new ones at Ṣarâbît al-Khâdim were also worked; the king
built his pyramid tomb at Lisht, and associated his son with him in the
rule of the kingdom a year before he died.
Among the monuments of his reign may be mentioned: A fine red granite
stele on which are sculptured figures of Khnemu and Sati, gods of the
First Cataract, and his Horus name, from Philae (Bay 5, No. =136=); head
of a colossal granite statue of Usertsen I, wearing the Crown of the
South (Bay 1, No. =137=); and a fragment of a chalcedony vase inscribed
with the king’s prenomen 𓍹𓇳𓆣𓂓𓍺 (No. 67, Wall-case 138, Fourth Egyptian
Room). Of his officials there are the painted stele of =Ȧthi=, who died
in the 14th year of the king’s reign (Bay 3, No. =138=); the stele of
=Neferu=, the overseer of the royal water-transport at Behen, or Wâdî
Ḥalfah (Bay 3, No. =139=), and two stelae and a statue of =Ȧntef=, the
son of Sebek-unnu and the lady Sent. Ȧntef was a confidential servant of
the king and superintended the royal private apartments in the palace; he
died four years before his master, _i.e._, in the 39th year of the reign
of Usertsen I. (See Bay 1, No. =140=; Bay 3, Nos. =141= and =142=.)
[Illustration: PLATE XXIV.
Sepulchral tablet and seated portrait figure of Sa-Hathor, a mining
inspector in the Sûdân, in the reign of Ȧmenemḥāt II, B.C. 2400.
[Southern Egyptian Gallery, Bay 1, No. 143.]]
[Sidenote: B.C. 2400.]
The reign of =Ȧmenemḥāt II= was prosperous, but uneventful; and no
military expeditions of importance were necessary either in the
Peninsula of Sinai or in Nubia. There was a large colony of Egyptians at
Sarâbît al-Khâdim, and a temple was built there in this reign to Hathor,
the goddess “of the land of the turquoise.” The search for gold was
carried on actively in the Sûdân, under the direction of =Sa-Hathor=,
who tells us on his stele (Bay 1, No. =143=; see =Plate XXIV=) that he
worked in the mining districts when he was a young man, and that he made
the chiefs wash out the gold; he brought back turquoises and went to the
=Land of the Blacks=, or Sûdân, and collected the products of the country
for his master. His knowledge of stone working induced the king to send
him to superintend the hewing of the ten royal statues which he placed
before his pyramid tomb. An interesting event of this period was the
despatch of an =expedition to Punt= under the direction of Khent-khat-ur,
who returned safely with his men in the 28th year of the king’s reign.
In the third year of Ȧmenemḥāt II died the Erpā =Sa-Menthu=, a royal
scribe and overseer of works. He was born in the reign of Ȧmenemḥāt I,
and was appointed scribe, etc., by Usertsen I. His sepulchral stele is
a fine example of its class (Bay 6, No. =145=). Another interesting
stele of this reign is that of =Khenti-em-semti=, a royal official, and
confidential servant and treasurer to the king; he visited Elephantine
and Abydos (Bay 1, No. =146=). The official =Khenti-em-semt-ur= was a
libationer priest who ministered in the chapel attached to the royal
pyramid called “Kherp” 𓌂𓉴𓊖𓏏𓏤 (Bay 1, No. =147=). The =door socket= (Bay
5, No. =148=), dated in the 30th year of the reign of Ȧmenemḥāt II, comes
from a royal building in Lower Egypt, and the seated figure of Hathor
(Bay 1, No. =149=), dedicated to the goddess by Seneferu, the overseer
of the boats, from Ṣarâbît al-Khâdim, dates from the time of the opening
of the new mines in the Peninsula of Sinai. The three dated stelae of
=Ȧmenemḥāt= (13th year), =Seḥetepȧb= (19th year), and =Menu-Nefer= (29th
year) are valuable examples of the funerary stelae of this reign (Bay 1,
No. =150=; Bay 7, No. =151=; and Bay 5, No. =152=), and the stelae of
=Seneferu= (Bay 3, No. =153=), and =Sen-ȧtef= (Bay 1, No. =154=).
[Sidenote: B.C. 2366.]
The reign of =Usertsen II= was long and prosperous, but uneventful.
Active labour went on in the turquoise and gold mines, and the quarries
at Elephantine were worked under the direction of Sa-Renput, the Governor
of Nubia. Usertsen II built a pyramid tomb at Al-Lâhûn, of wonderful
design and construction. It seems that he developed trade in the Red
Sea, and took care to keep in check the tribes of the Eastern Desert.
Classical writers call him “Sesostris” and describe him as a great
conqueror and traveller, but up to the present the Egyptian monuments
have not justified these assertions. Among the monuments of his reign may
be mentioned the stele of =Sebek-ḥetep=, the boat-builder, and =Tchaa=, a
palace official (Bay 9, No. =155=, and Bay 1, No. =156=), each of which
is dated in the 6th year of Usertsen II, and the lower portion of a black
granite figure of =Sa-Renput=, the “Great Chief in Ta-Kenset” (_i.e._,
Nubia), the “great father of the King of the South, and the great one of
the King of the North.” Sa-Renput held many high offices at Elephantine
and was one of the greatest of the feudal chiefs of his time (Vestibule,
No. =157=).
[Sidenote: B.C. 2333.]
=Usertsen III=, who was associated with his father in the rule of the
kingdom, was probably the greatest king of the XIIth dynasty. The
principal events of his reign were the conquest and occupation of all
the Northern Sûdân. As a preparation for this work, he made, or cleared
out, a canal about 250 feet long, 34½ feet wide, and 26 feet deep, in
the First Cataract, so that he might pass boats through it to the south.
In the 8th year of his reign he sailed up to Wâdî Ḥalfah, and, passing
on to one of the great “Gates” in the Second Cataract, he built two
forts, one on each bank, at the places now called Semnah (west bank) and
Kummah (east bank). He also built a fort to the north, on the Island
Gazîrat al-Malik, and others probably on the islands in the Nile to the
south. In fact, he occupied the whole of the gold-producing country of
the Northern Sûdân. He set up a stele at Semnah to mark the limit of
his kingdom on the south, and caused to be inscribed on it a decree
in which the Blacks were prohibited from entering Egyptian territory
without permission. Eight years later he set up two inscribed stelae in
which he vaunted his own boldness, prompt action, and invincibility,
and abused the Blacks, calling them cowards, runaways, etc. He says:
“I have seen them, I made no mistake about them. I seized their women,
I carried off their men and women when I came to their wells, I slew
their bulls, I destroyed their grain, and set fire [to their houses].”
Usertsen III established a line of forts at regular intervals along the
River Nile between Elephantine and the famous rock called Gebel Dôsha,
and garrisoned them with Egyptian troops; and was thus able to ensure the
safe transport of gold into Egypt, where the precious metal was required
in ever-increasing quantities. He repaired and added to many of the great
temples of Egypt, _e.g._, Tanis, Bubastis, Abydos, Herakleopolis, Thebes,
Elephantine, etc., and he built a pyramid tomb for himself at Dahshûr.
Among the monuments of this king and his reign may be mentioned: Three
grey granite =statues of Usertsen III= (Nos. =158=, =159=, =160=) which
were found in the South Court of the temple of Neb-ḥap-Rā Menthu-ḥetep
at Dêr al-Baḥarî. These fine statues appear to represent the king at
different periods of his life, and in finish and execution they stand
unrivalled among the monuments of the period. On the plinth of No. =158=
(Bay 1) are cut the king’s Horus name =Neter Kheperu=, and his name as
king of the South and North (see above, page 116) 𓍹𓇳𓈍𓂓𓂓𓂓𓍺 (see =Plate
XXV=). Head of a colossal granite statue of Usertsen III (Bay 1, No.
=161=); a portion of a seated figure of the king from Ṣarâbît al-Khâdim
(Bay 1, No. =162=); and the lower portions of two quartzite statues of
the king (Vestibule, Nos. =163=, =164=). No. 164 was usurped by Uasarken
II, of the XXIInd dynasty, who cut his cartouches upon the pedestal. The
building activity of the king at Bubastis is marked by the granite slabs
from that site in Bay 23 (Nos. =166= and =167=) on which is cut the royal
prenomen. No. 167 is of interest, for here we see part of the prenomen
of Rameses II cut over that of Usertsen III. Of the prominent officials
who flourished in this reign we have the stele of =Ȧn-ḥer-nekht=, the
=overseer of the granaries=, dated in the 7th year (Bay 1, No. =168=);
the stele of =Ȧmeni=, who carried out certain works at Elephantine in
connexion with the king’s expedition into Nubia, dated in the 8th year
(Bay 3, No. =169=); and the stele of =Sebek-ḥetep=, a warder of a temple,
dated in the 13th year (Bay 5, No. =170=).
[Illustration: PLATE XXV.
Granite statue of Usertsen III, B.C. 2330.
XIIth dynasty.
[Northern Egyptian Gallery, Bay 1, No. 159.]]
[Sidenote: B.C. 2300.]
=Ȧmenemḥāt III= reigned about fifty years, and devoted all his energies
to improving the prosperity of his kingdom. Art, sculpture, architecture,
and trade of all kinds flourished under his fostering care; and the
remains of his buildings and inscribed monuments bear witness to the
activity which must have prevailed among all classes of handicraftsmen
during his reign. The mines of Sinai, the Wâdî Ḥammâmât, Ṭura, and
elsewhere were diligently worked, and the king carried out large
irrigation works in connexion with the great =natural reservoir= in
the Fayyûm, which is commonly known by the name of =Lake Moeris= (from
the Egyptian Mu-ur, or Ma-ur) 𓈗𓅨𓂋, 𓈘𓅨𓂋𓈗. The circumference of this
reservoir was 150 miles, and its area 750 square miles; its average level
was 80 feet above the Mediterranean. In Nubia also he appears to have
undertaken irrigation works, for several “levels” are cut on the rocks
near the Forts of Usertsen III at Semnah and Kummah, with the years of
the king’s reign in which they were cut. They show that the level of
the river during the inundation was about 26 feet higher than it is
at the present time. Ȧmenemḥāt III is also thought to have built the
=Labyrinth=, which Herodotus says (ii, 148) contained twelve courts, and
3,000 chambers, 1,500 above ground and 1,500 under ground, and covered an
area about 1,000 feet long and 800 feet broad. It was dedicated to the
crocodile-god Sebek; and many sacred crocodiles were buried in a place
specially set apart for them. Ȧmenemḥāt III built a pyramid at Ḥawârah,
and he and his daughter Ptaḥ-Nefert were buried in it. From the ruins
of the chapel at the entrance to this pyramid came the limestone slab
inscribed with the king’s names and titles exhibited in Bay 5 (No. =171=).
Foremost among the monuments of this reign must be mentioned the colossal
grey granite seated statue, and the head, which probably belongs to it,
exhibited in the Southern Egyptian Gallery (Bay 22, Nos. =774=, =775=;
see =Plate XXVI=). The inscription on the pedestal of the throne was cut
there by order of Uasarken II, a king of the XXIInd dynasty; but it is
certain that an earlier inscription existed, which was erased to make
room for the new one. The features of the face and the general treatment
of the head resemble those of all other extant inscribed statues and
figures of Ȧmenemḥāt III; compare the cast of the statue in the Hermitage
at St. Petersburg (Bay 2, No. =172=), and the cast of a head from a
statue of the king (No. 172, in Wall-case 101, in the Third Egyptian
Room). To his reign also belong the famous =sphinxes= which were found at
Ṣân (Tanis) in 1861, and were for many years attributed to the Hyksos,
because the name of Ȧpepȧ was cut on a shoulder of one of them. On the
cast of one of these exhibited in the Central Saloon (No. =173=) are
inscribed cartouches of Rameses II, Mer-en-Ptaḥ II, and Pasebkhānut. Of
officials who flourished in this reign we have the fine white limestone
=shrine of Pa-suten-sa=, from Mêdûm, surmounted by the figure of a hawk
(Bay 1, No. =174=); the stele of =Nebpu-Usertsen=, one of the king’s
personal attendants (Bay 2, No. 175); the stele of =Usertsen-senbu=
𓄊𓋴𓂋𓏏𓊃𓈖𓋴𓈖𓃀𓋴𓈖𓃀𓋴𓈖𓃀, a veritable royal kinsman, and a commissioner
of the revenue, dated in the 25th year of the king’s reign (Bay 1, No.
=177=); and the =stele and altar of Sebek-ḥer-ḥeb= and =Kemen=, dated in
the 44th year of the king’s reign[32] (Bay 3, Nos. =179=, =180=). The
stele of =Tati-ānkef= (Bay 5, No. =181=), the son of =Tenȧuit=, is of
peculiar interest, for it was found in Malta (see page 220).
[Illustration: PLATE XXVI.
Head of a colossal seated statue of Ȧmenemḥāt III (?), B.C. 2300.
[Southern Egyptian Gallery, Bay 22, No. 774.]]
The reign of =Ȧmenemḥāt IV= was short, and monuments of his reign are
few. His name is found on the rocks in the copper mines in Sinai, and
on a rock at Kummah in Nubia, but details of his reign are wanting. An
interesting glazed steatite plaque, bearing his name and that of =Prince
Ȧmeni=, will be found in Wall-case 150 in the Fourth Egyptian Room, No. 1.
[Illustration: Shrine dedicated to Osiris by Pa-suten-sa, scribe, who
flourished in the reign of Ȧmenemḥāt III, B.C. 2300.
[Northern Egyptian Gallery, Bay 1, No. 174.]]
The last ruler of this dynasty was =Sebek-neferut-Rā=, the Skemiophris
of Manetho, and sister of Ȧmenemḥāt IV; her reign was short, and her
monuments are few. The most important is the glazed =cylinder-seal=
inscribed with four of her royal names, exhibited in Table-case D, Fourth
Egyptian Room, No. =134=.
In connexion with the XIIth dynasty must be mentioned King =Ḥer=, who may
have been a son of Ȧmenemḥāt III, or of Usertsen III (see his scarab,
No. 37,652), and an Usertsen with the prenomen of =Seneferȧb-Rā=, who is
sometimes called =Usertsen IV=.
[Illustration: Sepulchral stele of Tatiankef, the son of Tenȧuit. Found
in Malta.
XIIth dynasty.
[Northern Egyptian Gallery, Bay 5, No. 181.]]
The rule of the XIIth dynasty was long and prosperous; and art, and
sculpture, and literature flourished. The art of the period is developed
directly out of that of the Ancient Empire, but one of the most prominent
characteristics is an increased tendency towards realism which is
especially seen in the designs and workmanship of small objects. The
=Scarabs= of the XIIth dynasty are particularly interesting and
beautiful, and a splendid set of examples is exhibited in the Fourth
Egyptian Room. The =sepulchral stelae= of the period are also very
interesting, and many of them exhibit clearly the transition stages
between the “false door” of the maṣṭaba tomb of the Ancient Empire and
the stele, or tablet, which stood by itself in the tomb. The British
Museum Collection is rich in XIIth dynasty stelae, comprising examples of
every important variety. The inscriptions upon them usually open with the
formula =suten-ṭā-ḥetep=, 𓇓𓏙𓊵𓏏𓊪 which is followed by a prayer to one
or more gods for sepulchral offerings and for “glory in heaven, strength
upon earth, and triumph in the Other World.” Opinions differ as to the
meaning of the formula _suten ṭā ḥetep_. Some think that it is a prayer
to “the king to give an offering”; and others that it is a prayer for
“an offering like that of a king”; and many different renderings have
been proposed by Egyptologists. It is of course possible that, under the
IVth dynasty, the formula may have been a prayer that an offering might
be given by the king, for the king was regarded as the equal of Anubis
and Osiris and other gods of the dead; but it is manifestly impossible
that every man throughout Egypt could expect the king to send him an
offering at his death, and we are therefore driven to conclude that the
original meaning of the formula was forgotten at a very early period, and
that it was only prefixed to funerary texts at the dictates of custom
or tradition. If it had any meaning at all in the later dynasties, it
would probably be that of a petition to one or more gods for the gift of
an offering like unto that made for a king after his death. Sepulchral
stelae are also valuable because they give the titles of the offices held
by deceased persons, and because they often supply biographies of men who
played important parts in the history of their country.
Among stelae and other monuments of historical value of this period
may be mentioned: Stele from the tomb of =Khnemu-ḥetep= at Beni-Hasan
(Vestibule, No. =182=); statue of =Ȧmenemḥāt=, a veritable royal
kinsman,[33] and =master= of =the robes= (Bay 1, No. =183=); seated
figure of =Ȧmeni=, inscribed with a prayer for offerings (Bay 1, No.
=184=); stele of =Nekhtȧ=, a Ḥā Prince (Bay 1, No. =185=); stele of
=Ȧnḥer-nekht=, =chief clerk= of =grain supply= (Bay 1, No. =186=);
stele of =Ȧntef=, an overseer of priests (Bay 1, No. =187=); stele of
=Sa-Ȧnḥer=, a deputy keeper of the seal, with figures of eighteen of his
children and relatives bearing offerings (Bay 1, No. =189=); stele of the
lady =Khu=, with figures of her two husbands and twelve children (Bay 1,
No. =190=); stele set up to =the memory= of =sixteen persons= and their
mothers (Bay 2, No. =191=); stele of =Sebek-āāiu=, with hieroglyphics
inlaid with blue paste (Bay 2, No. =193=); stele of =Ȧmeni=, of unusual
style (Bay 2, No. =194=); stele of =Erṭā-Ȧntef-Ṭāṭāu=, a governor of the
Sûdân (Bay 4, No. =196=); and stele of =Ȧntef=, with an inscription of
twenty lines in which the deceased describes his virtues and abilities
(Bay 7, No. =197=). As examples of the wall-paintings on the tombs of
this period may be mentioned the slabs from the tomb of =Teḥuti-ḥetep=,
a high official who flourished during the reign of Ȧmenemḥāt II (Bay
2, Nos. =198-200=; Bay 7, No. =201=). To the same period, or a little
later, belongs the sandstone =obelisk= which was set up to the memory
of an Egyptian official of the copper mines at Ṣarâbît al-Khâdim in the
Peninsula of Sinai (Bay 1, No. =202=).
The other monuments of the XIIth dynasty consist of =altars=, or =tablets
for offerings=, of which a considerable number are exhibited in =Bays 14,
16, and 17=. Among the altars of the XIIth dynasty may be noted that of
the Ḥā prince =Usertsen=, a superintendent of the prophets, sculptured
with figures of vases and two tanks, and inscribed with an address to
the living (Bay 17, No. =269=). The altar is a rectangular, flat slab of
stone, with a projection which was intended to serve as a spout, from
which the drink offerings were supposed to run off into a vessel placed
to receive them. In the altar small rectangular tanks were sometimes cut,
but usually the surface was sculptured with figures of haunches of meat,
bread-cakes, fruit, flowers, unguent vases, libation jars, etc., and on
the edges and sides were inscribed prayers for funerary offerings of
meat and drink and for things which were deemed necessary for the dead.
The Egyptians believed that the material things placed on such altars
possessed, like animated creatures, two bodies and spirits; their bodies
were consumed by the priests and others, and their spirits by the gods.
Some believed in the transmutation of offerings.
We now come to a period, _i.e._, that of the =XIIIth, XIVth, XVth, XVIth,
and XVIIth= dynasties, which is full of difficulties. Not only is the
order of the succession of the kings of these dynasties unknown, but
authorities differ greatly in their estimate of the length of the period
of their rule. Some say that the interval between the XIIth and the
XVIIIth dynasties consisted of more than 500 years, and others that it
was less than 200 years. The figures given by Manetho are as follows:—
=XIIIth= =dynasty.= From Thebes. 60 kings in 453 years.
=XIVth= ” ” Xoïs. 76 ” in 184 (or 484 years).
=XVth= ” =Shepherds.= 6 ” in 284 years.
=XVIth= ” =Shepherds.= 32 ” in 518 years.
=XVIIth= ” =Shepherds.= 5 (?) kings in 151 years.
[Illustration: PLATE XXVII.
Granite statue of King Sekhem-uatch-taui-Rā.
XIIIth or XIVth dynasty, B.C. 2000.
[Northern Egyptian Gallery, Bay 1, No. 276.]]
[Illustration: PLATE XXVIII.
Stele of the reign of Sekhem-ka-Rā, a king of the XIIIth dynasty, about
B.C. 2000.
[Northern Egyptian Gallery, Bay 2, No. 277.]]
[Illustration: PLATE XXIX.
Memorial cone of Sebek-ḥetep, a scribe, who flourished in the reign of
Sebek-em-sa-f, B.C. 2000.
XIIIth dynasty.
[Northern Egyptian Gallery, Bay 1, No. 280.]]
The total of these years is 1,590 according to one reckoning and 1,290
according to another, but it is impossible to accept either, and we must
therefore assume that the total of 1,590 or 1,290 years represents the
length of the reigns of the kings at Thebes, and of those who ruled in
the Delta. In fact it is clear that, except at rare intervals, between
the XIIth and the XVIIIth dynasties a king of the North and a king of the
South were always reigning at the same time in Egypt, and that neither
was sufficiently strong to make himself master of the whole country. The
evidence derived from the monuments seems to indicate that the power of
the Theban kings declined steadily at the beginning of this period, and
that, as it declined, the power of the nomad Semites from the east, who
are known as =Hyksos= or =Shepherds=, increased until the end of the
period, when the Theban kings became strong enough to make themselves
masters of the whole country. The names of a considerable number of
kings, who may be assumed to have reigned during the XIIIth and XIVth
dynasties, are known from scarabs and larger monuments, but nothing is
known of their reigns.
Of the monuments of the period in the British Museum may be specially
noted: Red granite seated figure of =Sekhem-uatch-taui-Rā=, a king of the
XIIIth or XIVth dynasty. This is a fine piece of sculpture, and is unlike
any other statue in the gallery. The body lacks the heaviness of the
statues of the earlier period. On the throne are cut, in outline, figures
of two lions placed back to back. Above them are the signs _sa ānkh_ 𓎂𓋹,
_i.e._, the “fluid of life,” which the king derived from Rā, the Sun-god
(see =Plate XXVII=; Bay 1, No. =276=). Of interest also are three stelae
of private individuals, each of which mentions the name of a king, viz.,
=Sekhem-ka-Rā= (see =Plate XXVIII=), with the Horus name of Sānkh-taui
(Bay 2, No. =277=), =Sebek-ḥetep=, with the prenomen of Khā-nefer-Rā (Bay
5, No. =278=), and =Ȧb-ȧā= (Bay 5, No. =279=). To this period belongs the
=axe handle= of =Sekhem-uatch-taui-Rā= (Sebek-ḥetep) a king (Table-case
E, Third Egyptian Room, No. 104). To a somewhat later period belong the
interesting =memorial cone= of the scribe Sebek-ḥetep, who flourished in
the reign of =Sebek-em-sa-f= (see =Plate XXIX=), of the XIVth dynasty,
a unique object (Bay 1, No. =280=), and the royal inscribed green stone
=scarab, with a human face=, set in a gold plinth, which probably came
from the tomb of this king at Thebes (Table-case J, Fourth Egyptian Room,
No. 195). Of interest, too, are the =royal stele= of the little-known
king =Ȧp-uat-em-sau-f= (Bay 3, No. =281=); the stele of =Ḥetep-neteru=
and =Teḥuti-āa=, which mentions another hitherto unknown king (Bay 4,
No. =282=); the stele of Ptaḥ-sānkh, mentioning king =Rā-Ḥetep= (Bay 5,
No. =283=); and the slab from the temple of Osorkon II at Bubastis,
inscribed with the name of =Sekhem-khu-taui-Rā= (Bay 23, No. =284=).
To a great many stelae of private individuals, who flourished between the
XIIth and the XVIIIth dynasties, it is difficult to assign exact dates,
for very few of them mention royal names, and the inscriptions cut on
them afford no clue. Fine examples of the transition period of funerary
sculpture, stelae, etc., are: Stele of =Nebȧ=, an inspector (Bay 1, No.
=285=); grey granite =portrait figure= of an official of Athribis (Bay
2, No. =288=); granite figure of =Nefer-ȧri=, from Bubastis (Bay 2, No.
=289=); stele of =Pai-neḥsi=, the store keeper of the gold which came
from the Sûdân (Bay 7, No. =299=); stele of =Ȧntef-Ȧqer-ānkh-khu= (Bay 7,
No. =301=); stele of Queen =Mer-seḳer= (Bay 9, No. =330=).
The =Hyksos=.—Comparatively soon after the downfall of the XIIIth
dynasty, the Delta and northern parts of Egypt were little by little
occupied by a confederation of Semitic nomad tribes to whose leaders,
on the authority of =Flavius Josephus=, the historian (who died about
A.D. 100), the name of =Hyksos= or =Shepherd Kings= has been given. The
word Hyksos is derived from two Egyptian words _Ḥequ-Shasu_ 𓋾𓈎𓀀𓏪𓆷𓄿𓇓𓅱𓏪,
_i.e._, the Shêkhs or Governors of the Shasu,[34] or nomadic tribes of
the Eastern Desert, Syria, etc. It is extremely unlikely that they fought
for the possession of Egypt; and we may assume that they migrated into
the Delta, and that, after a few generations, they found that their
power and numbers were sufficiently great to enable them to assume the
mastery of the whole country of Lower Egypt. The Hyksos, who had settled
in the Delta, adopted, little by little, the manners and customs of the
Egyptians; and at length their chiefs adopted the Egyptian language and
religion, and assumed the titles of the old Pharaohs, and became to all
intents and purposes Egyptian kings. They apparently worshipped several
gods, the chief of whom was =Sutekh= 𓇓𓏲𓏏𓐍𓀭, and him they identified
with =Set= 𓋴𓏏𓈜𓃩, or =Suti= 𓇓𓅱𓏏𓏭𓃩, the old Egyptian god of darkness and
evil.
[Illustration: Granite lion inscribed with the name of Khian, a Hyksos
king, about B.C. 1800.
[Northern Egyptian Gallery, Bay 5, No. 340.]]
According to Josephus the chief kings of the Hyksos were: =Salatis=, who
reigned at Memphis, and fortified the city of =Avaris=, near Tanis, and
garrisoned it with 250,000 men; he reigned 13 years. He was succeeded by
=Beon=, who reigned 44 years, and =Apachnas=, who reigned 36 years and
7 months, and =Apophis=, who reigned 61 years, and =Jonias= who reigned
50 years and 1 month, and =Assis=, who reigned 49 years and 2 months. Of
the objects in the British Museum which belong to the =Hyksos Period=
may be mentioned: =1.= The famous =Mathematical Papyrus= (No. 10,058),
which was written in the reign of =Āa-user-Rā= 𓍹𓇳𓉻𓂝𓄊𓋴𓍺, or =Ȧpepȧ I=;
=2.= A red granite slab from the temple of Bubastis, inscribed with the
name of =Ȧpepȧ= 𓍹𓇋𓀁𓊪𓊪𓇋𓍺 (Bay 23, No. =339=); =3.= A scarab inscribed
=Āa-peḥ=, the prenomen of =Nubti=, a king whose cartouches appear on the
famous =Stele of 400 years=[35] (No. 32,368); =4.= The =granite= lion
(Bay 5, No. =340=) on the breast of which is cut the cartouche 𓊹𓄤𓍹𓇳𓋴𓈖𓍺
_Suser-en-Rā_, _i.e._, the prenomen of King =Khian= 𓍹𓐍𓇌𓄿𓈖𓍺. This lion
was purchased at Baghdad, but its _provenance_ is unknown. Besides these
the British Museum possesses a large number of =scarabs of the Hyksos
Period= inscribed with the names of kings and royal personages.
Another Hyksos king, =Āa-qenen-Rā Ȧpepȧ II=, is made known to us by
Sallier Papyrus II (No. 10,185), which shows that he was a contemporary
of one of the Theban kings called =Seqenen-Rā=. According to this
document there was enmity between Ȧpepȧ II and Seqenen-Rā, his vassal,
but as the papyrus is mutilated the result of their enmity is unknown.
During one portion of the Hyksos Period a group of petty kings, or
chiefs, each of whom was called =Ȧntef-āa=, ruled either at Thebes or
Coptos, and a few of their monuments have come down to us. In the British
Museum are: =1.= Stone memorial =pyramid of Ȧntef-āa Ȧp-Maāt= (Vestibule,
South wall, No. =341=); =2.= Slab sculptured with a figure of =Ȧntef
Nub-kheper-Rā= (Bay 4, No. =342=); =3.= Gilded =coffin of Ȧntef-āa=
(Wall-case 2, First Egyptian Room).
It has been said above that there was enmity between Ȧpepȧ II and
Seqenen-Rā, but the monuments prove that there were three kings who
bore the =Seqenen-Rā= prenomen, and it seems that all three waged war
against the Hyksos in the north; their full names were =Seqenen-Rā=
(=I=), =Tau-āa=, =Seqenen-Rā= (=II=), =Tau-āa-āa=, =Seqenen-Rā= (=III=),
=Tau-āa-qen=. The greatest warrior of the three was undoubtedly the
last named, and it was he who determined to throw off the yoke of the
foreigner. He was supported by all classes of Egyptians, for the Hyksos
were hated, and especially by the priests of Ȧmen-Rā at Thebes, who
regarded the demand of the Hyksos king that Seqenen-Rā III should worship
the god Sutekh as a grave insult to their god Ȧmen-Rā. Seqenen-Rā III
refused to worship Sutekh, and proclaimed his independence. Of the
battles which were fought during the war that followed nothing is known,
but it is clear that in one of them the brave leader in the struggle for
national independence was slain. When his mummy was unrolled at Cairo,
in 1886, it was seen that the lower jaw-bone was broken and the skull
split; there were also large wounds in the side of the head and over the
eye, and one ear had been hacked away. Tau-āa-qen was succeeded by his
son (?) =Ka-mes=, whose reign was, however, short. To him belonged the
fine =bronze axe-head= inscribed with his names and titles exhibited in
Table-case B in the Third Egyptian Room (No. 5), and the =spear head=,
similarly inscribed, of which see a cast in the same case (No. 191).
Ka-mes had several children by his wife Ȧāḥ-ḥetep, and some of their sons
may have ruled for a short time; but the country was very unsettled, and
the first to succeed in restoring law and order was =Ȧāḥmes=, or =Amāsis
I=, the founder of the XVIIIth dynasty.
CHAPTER XII.
THE NEW EMPIRE.
The Eighteenth Dynasty. From Thebes.
_About_ B.C. 1600.
Under this dynasty Egypt formed her empire in Western Asia, and conquered
and occupied the Egyptian Sûdân, probably so far south as the Baḥr
al-Ghazâl. The Hyksos were expelled from Egypt by the first kings of
the dynasty, and the peoples in the Eastern and Western Deserts were
held in check with a firm hand. King after king made frequent raids on a
large scale into Syria and the Sûdân, and on each occasion brought back
untold spoils, a considerable proportion of which was expended on the
building of great temples like those of Karnak, Luxor, and Dêr al-Baḥarî.
Trade developed to an unprecedented extent, and riches increased; and
the king and his priests and nobles were able to gratify their love of
splendid temples, colossal statues, lofty obelisks, large palaces, fine
houses and gardens, decorated furniture, elaborate jewellery, costly
tombs, etc. Under the patronage of the priesthood and the temple-schools
education prospered, literature, art, painting and sculpture flourished,
and the vast works which were undertaken by the Government encouraged
handicraftsmen of every kind in the production of the best work. Among
the kings of this dynasty were the greatest and most powerful sovereigns
that ever ruled Egypt, viz., Thothmes III and Ȧmen-ḥetep III.
[Sidenote: B.C. 1600.]
The first king of the dynasty was =Ȧāḥmes=, or =Amāsis I=, who carried on
the war against the Hyksos which Seqenen-Rā had begun. He captured the
city of Avaris, the stronghold of the Hyksos, and turned the enemy out of
the country, and in the fifth year of his reign he captured the city of
Sharuhen (mentioned in Joshua xix, 6), in Syria. He subsequently invaded
Nubia and compelled the tribes to pay tribute. Among the monuments of his
reign are the massive granite =altar= inscribed with his name (Bay 16,
No. =343=); the head of a seated figure of =Nefert-ȧri=, his wife (Bay
12, No. =344=); the =ushabti= figure of the king (Wall-case 84, Second
Egyptian Room, No. 129); and the =portrait= of the Queen (Case 1, Third
Egyptian Room, No. 3).
[Illustration: Statue of Ȧmen-ḥetep I, B.C. 1600, in the form of Osiris,
wearing the Crown of the South.
[Northern Egyptian Gallery, Bay 3, No. 346.]]
=Ȧmen-ḥetep I=, the son of Amāsis I, continued the war in Nubia, and
the rebuilding of the temple of Ȧmen and other sanctuaries; he was
the founder of the great brotherhood of the =Priests of Ȧmen=. From
a building made by him at Dêr al-Baḥarî came the magnificent painted
limestone =statue of the king=, in the mummied form and with the White
Crown of Osiris, exhibited in the Northern Egyptian Gallery (No.
=346=), and the stele on which are sculptured figures of =Neb-Ḥapt-Rā
Menthu-ḥetep= and =Ȧmen-ḥetep I= (Bay 9, No. =347=). Other interesting
monuments of this reign are: the stele of =Pa-sheṭ=, a judge, who is seen
adoring the king and queen (Bay 7, No. =348=); and a stele with figures
of the king and queen (Bay 9, No. =349=). The inscriptions and scenes on
several stelae show that Ȧmen-ḥetep I and his queens were included among
the gods; see the stelae of =Ḥui= (Bay 8, No. =352=), =Pa-ren-nefer= (Bay
8, No. =353=), =Ȧmen-em-Ȧpt= (Bay 10, No. =354=), =Ȧmen-men= (Bay 10, No.
=355=), and =Ḥui=, son of Nefert-ithȧ (Bay 11, No. =357=).
[Sidenote: B.C. 1550.]
=Teḥuti-mes I=, or =Thothmes I=, the son of Ȧmen-ḥetep I, made Napata,
at the foot of the Fourth Cataract, the border of his kingdom to the
south; and he waged war in Northern Syria. He added to the temple of
Ȧmen, and set up obelisks at Karnak. Among objects bearing his name are
two =bricks= and a =steatite vase= inscribed with his prenomen and name
(Wall-cases 150 and 175 in the Fourth Egyptian Room).
=Thothmes II=, the son of Thothmes I and Mut-Nefert, married his
half-sister Ḥātshepset; during his short reign, war was carried on in
Syria and Nubia, and many temples in Egypt and forts in Nubia were
repaired or rebuilt. Among the monuments of this reign may be mentioned
the =scarabs= in Table-case D (Fourth Egyptian Room) and a portion of a
slab inscribed with his Horus name (Third Egyptian Room, Wall-case 103,
No. 937).
After the death of Thothmes II, his widow =Ḥātshepset= reigned alone
for some years, and she built the famous =temple of Dêr al-Baḥarî=, the
walls of which she decorated with reliefs illustrating her =Expedition
to Punt=. The temple was called “Tcheser-Tcheseru,” _i.e._, “Holy of
Holies,” and the architect was Senmut; it was built close to the temple
of Menthu-ḥetep Neb-ḥap-Rā, and was ranged in three terraces. It was
enclosed by a wall, and was approached by an avenue of sphinxes, which
led to the pylon at the entrance, where stood two obelisks. She also set
up two great granite obelisks in honour of her father Thothmes I. About
twenty years before her death she associated her nephew Thothmes III
with her in the rule of the kingdom. Many =scarabs=, a gold =ring=, a
wooden =cartouche=, and an alabaster =vase=, inscribed with her names and
titles, are exhibited in the Fourth Egyptian Room (Table-cases P and J
and Wall-case 139).
=Thothmes III=, the son of Thothmes II and the lady Ȧset, was the
greatest of all the kings of Egypt; he reigned for about 53 years, 21
years as co-regent with Ḥātshepset, and 32 years alone. Soon after he
became sole ruler of Egypt he began a series of campaigns in Palestine,
Syria and other countries of Western Asia, and his arms were everywhere
victorious. In the first campaign he captured the city of Megiddo, in
Syria, and brought back an immense quantity of spoil. Subsequently he
undertook some fifteen campaigns into different parts of Western Asia;
and towards the close of his reign he appears to have raided the Sûdân.
The vast wealth which he drew from Asia enabled him to be a generous
friend of the priesthood, and to repair, rebuild and enlarge and found
sanctuaries for the great gods of Egypt. He carried on extensive building
operations at Heliopolis, Memphis, Abydos, Denderah, Coptos, Dêr
al-Baḥarî, Madînat Habû, Hermonthis, Esna, Edfû, etc.; but his greatest
work was the colonnade which he built in the temple of Ȧmen at Karnak,
150 feet long, 50 feet wide, with 50 columns and 32 rectangular pillars
(see =Plate XXX=). He founded the temple of Ṣulb (Soleb) near the Third
Cataract, and dedicated a temple at Semnah to Usertsen III. At Karnak and
elsewhere he set up magnificent granite obelisks, one of which, commonly
called =Cleopatra’s Needle=, now stands on the Thames Embankment. He
was buried in the valley of the Tombs of the Kings at Thebes; and his
mummy was wrapped in a linen sheet inscribed with the text of the CLIVth
Chapter of the Book of the Dead, and extracts from the Litany of Rā.
[Illustration: PLATE XXX.
The Hall of Columns in the great temple of Ȧmen-Rā, at Karnak.]
[Illustration: PLATE XXXI.
Head from a colossal granite statue of Thothmes III, B.C. 1550.
[Northern Egyptian Gallery, Bay 2, No. 360.]]
Among the many monuments of Thothmes III and his reign may be mentioned:
=1.= The magnificent =head=, in red granite, from a colossal statue of
the king, found by Belzoni at Karnak (No. =360=, Northern Gallery; see
=Plate XXXI=); the total height of the head and crown is 9 ft. 5 in.,
and the width of the face is 2 ft. 7½ in. =2.= Massive granite monument
with figures of the god Menthu-Rā and Thothmes III in relief (Bay 2, No.
=363=). =3.= Fragment of the obelisk set up by the king at Heliopolis
(Bay 12, No. =364=); and a door jamb from a temple of Thothmes III at
Wâdî Ḥalfah (Bay 10, No. =365=). Of interest, too, are the cast of a
granite =sphinx= bearing the name of Thothmes III on its breast (Northern
Gallery, No. =366=); the cast of the famous granite stele inscribed with
an =address to the king by Ȧmen-Rā=, in which the god describes the
exploits of Thothmes III (Central Saloon, No. =367=); portion of a stele
dated in the 35th year of Thothmes III (Bay 11, No. =368=); slab with
scenes of =Ȧmen-ḥetep I= and =Thothmes III= adoring the gods (Bay 12, No.
=369=). Among smaller objects inscribed with his name may be mentioned
the =glass jug=, gold =rings=, =razor= (?), tools and =weapons in
bronze=, and =bricks= made of Nile mud, exhibited in the Third and Fourth
Egyptian Rooms. There are also the stele of =Messnȧu=, a priest in his
temple (Bay 8, No. =372=), and the statue of =Netchem=, who prayed to the
royal _Ka_ of Thothmes III 𓇓𓏏𓈖𓂔𓍹𓇳𓏠𓆣𓍺 (Bay 9, No. =373=). To the joint
reign of Thothmes III and Ḥātshepset belongs the =statue of Ȧnebni=,
the master of the armoury, which was set up to his memory by his august
master and mistress (Bay 9, No. =374=).
[Sidenote: B.C. 1500.]
=Ȧmen-ḥetep II= fought in Syria, and penetrated the Sûdân as far as Wâd
Bâ-Nagaa, about 80 miles north of Kharṭûm; he caused the body of one
of the chiefs whom he had slain in Syria to be sent to Napata (Gebel
Barkal), and hung upon the city walls to strike terror into the Nubians.
Of monuments of his reign may be noted: The royal =ushabti figure= in
diorite (Wall-case 84, Second Egyptian Room, No. 7); the =glass= and
=alabaster= vessels (Table-case H in the Third Egyptian Room), and the
=axe-head= in Table-case B in the Fourth Egyptian Room; the stele of
=Ȧthu=, second priest of the king (Bay 4, No. =375=); and the portion of
the bowl dedicated by the scribe Teḥutimes (Bay 12, No. =376=).
The reign of =Thothmes IV= was short and unimportant. He made one or more
raids into Nubia, an expedition into Syria; and in the first year of his
reign he set up a tablet between the paws of the =Sphinx= stating that
the =god of the Sphinx=, Ḥerukhuti-Kheperȧ-Rā-Temu, appeared to him one
day before he was king, and bade him remove the sand which had closed
him in on all sides, and promised him that he should become king if he
obeyed. Thothmes undertook the work, and in due course became king. His
inscription mentions king =Khāf-Rā= (Chephren) in connexion with some
work (probably a clearing of the sand) performed for the Sphinx. Among
the monuments of his reign may be noted the =stele of Ȧmen-ḥetep=, an
officer who accompanied the king into Western Asia and the Sûdân (Bay 11,
No. =377=); and the stele of =Nefer-ḥāt=, overseer of the works in the
Temple of Abydos (Bay 8, No. =378=). Thothmes IV married a lady named
=Mut-em-uȧa=, who became the mother of Ȧmen-ḥetep III. The =granite boat=
which was dedicated to the queen as the counterpart of the goddess Mut,
is exhibited in the Northern Gallery (Bay 7, No. =379=). For a portion of
the head of her seated figure from the boat see Bay 7, No. =380=. Some
think that Mut-em-uȧa is to be identified with the daughter of Artatama,
king of Mitani.[36]
[Sidenote: B.C. 1450.]
=Ȧmen-ḥetep III=, the =Memnon= of the Greeks, declared himself to be an
incarnation of the god Ȧmen-Rā; he reigned about 36 years. In the fifth
year of his reign he marched into the Sûdân and crushed a rebellion at
Abhat, taking 750 prisoners. He subsequently travelled in many parts
of that country, and built a magnificent temple there, near the modern
village of Ṣulb (Soleb), which he dedicated to himself as the god of the
Sûdân. He made many expeditions into Western Asia, and whilst there he
enjoyed lion-hunting on a large scale; on the large =scarabs= exhibited
in Table-case D (Fourth Egyptian Room) he states that he shot with his
own hand one hundred and two fierce lions during the first ten years of
his reign. His frequent visits to Western Asia enabled him to continue
the friendly personal relations with the kings and rulers which his
father inaugurated; and he married several of their daughters, _e.g._, a
daughter of Kadashman-Bêl, king of Karaduniyash; a daughter of Shutarna,
king of Mitani; and a daughter of Tushratta, king of Mitani. He also
married a sister of Tushratta called Gilukhipa, who arrived in Egypt
with three hundred and seventeen of her principal women. The greatest
and best beloved of his wives, however, was =Thi=, who must also have
been of foreign extraction. Judging by the appearance of the mummies of
her father, Iuȧa and her mother Thuȧa, which have recently been found,
it seems that the former was not an Egyptian, but a native of some part
of the Eastern Desert or Southern Syria, while the latter was a native
Egyptian woman. Their daughter Thi was a very remarkable woman in every
way, and it seems beyond question that her son Ȧmen-ḥetep IV derived from
her the monotheistic views which he held.
[Illustration: The Temple of Luxor, built by Ȧmen-ḥetep III, B.C. 1450.]
The building operations of Ȧmen-ḥetep III were on a very large scale,
and extended from one end of Egypt and Nubia to the other. He built
the =Apis chapels= at Ṣaḳḳârah; at Thebes he built a pylon; at Karnak
the temple dedicated to the Theban triad, Ȧmen-Rā, Mut and Khensu; in
the Southern Ȧpt (_i.e._, Luxor), a temple to =Menthu=, and a temple to
the goddess Mut, from which come the series of =statues of Sekhet=, a
fire-goddess, exhibited in the Northern Egyptian Gallery, Nos. =381-410=.
All these buildings were on the east bank of the Nile. On the west bank
he erected a great temple, the =Memnonium=, and in front of it set up
two huge statues of himself which are generally known as the =Colossi
of Memnon= (see =Plate XXXIII=). The northern statue was said to emit a
sweet, sad note daily at sunrise, and for this reason was known as the
“vocal statue of Memnon”; the sound was never heard after the statue was
repaired by the Emperor Septimius Severus (A.D. 193-211). Ȧmen-ḥetep
III also built a temple at Al-Kâb, and another to the god Khnemu at
Elephantine, and at Saddênga in the Sûdân he built a temple in honour of
his wife Thi, who was also probably worshipped there, as the king himself
was worshipped in his temple at Ṣulb, which has already been mentioned.
[Illustration: PLATE XXXII.
Colossal seated statue of Ȧmen-ḥetep III, B.C. 1450.
[Northern Egyptian Gallery, Bay 8, No. 412.]]
[Illustration: PLATE XXXIII.
The statues of Ȧmen-ḥetep III, B.C. 1450, commonly known as “The
Colossi.” The statue on the right is the famous “Colossus of Memnon,”
from which a sound was said to issue at dawn.]
The reign of Ȧmen-ḥetep III was long and prosperous, and his kingdom
extended from the city of Nî, on the Euphrates, to Karei, in the Sûdân.
He developed the gold mines of the Sûdân to an unprecedented extent,
and exported gold to the countries of Western Asia. The monuments of
this reign are numerous; among them may be specially mentioned: =1.=
A tablet inscribed with an account of the crushing of the =revolt in
Nubia= in the fifth year of his reign, set up by =Meri-mes=, governor
of the Sûdân (Bay 6, No. =411=). =2.= Two colossal =seated statues of
Ȧmen-ḥetep III= (see =Plate XXXII=), from the Memnonium (Bay 8, No.
=412=; Bay 9, No. =413=). =3.= Upper portion of a colossal statue (Bay
6, No. =415=), and two heads from colossal sandstone statues of the
king (Bay 4, No. =416=; Bay 5, No. =417=). =4.= Head from the granite
=sarcophagus= of the king (Central Saloon, No. =418=). 5. Grey =granite
column= from a temple built by him at Memphis (?). It was repaired
by =Menephthah I= under the XIXth dynasty, and about 100 years later
=Set-nekht= inscribed his cartouches upon it (Bay 7, No. =419=). The
monuments of his officials are also numerous. The most interesting are:
=Granite coffin of Meri-mes=, governor of the Sûdân (Bay 12, No. =420=);
stele of =Sururu=, a high official (Bay 7, No. =422=), seated figure of
=Kames=, a =king’s messenger= (Bay 5, No. =423=); a slab, with cornice,
from the tomb of =Pa-ȧri=, an overseer of the granaries of Ȧmen-Rā
at Thebes (Bay 10, No. =424=); stele of =Ȧpni=, a master of transport
(Bay 11, No. =425=); painted statue of =Pa-ser=, an Erpā, from Dêr
al-Baḥarî (Bay 13, No. =427=); granite statue of =Ȧmen-ḥetep=, an Erpā,
from Bubastis (Bay 12, No. =428=), etc. Of special interest are the two
fine =red granite lions=, which were found in the ruins of a temple at
Gebel Barkal, at the foot of the Fourth Cataract. No. =430= dates from
the reign of Ȧmen-ḥetep III, and appears to have been made by him for
the temple of Ṣulb; No. =431= was, according to the inscription, made
by =Tut-ānkh-Ȧmen=, a later king of the XVIIIth dynasty, who “repaired
the monuments of his father Ȧmen-ḥetep” (see =Plate XXXVI=). The name
of a late Nubian king, =Ȧmen-Ȧsru=, is found on each lion, and it is
possible that he may have brought both lions to Napata from Ṣulb, and
placed them in his own temple. Stelae Nos. =432= (Bay 10) and =433= (Bay
9) are of a most unusual character. No. 432 is a late (Ptolemaïc) copy,
written in hieratic, of the =deed of endowment= of the funerary chapel
of =Ȧmen-ḥetep, the son of Ḥāp=, the famous architect who built the
=Colossi=, dated in the thirty-first year of the reign of Ȧmen-ḥetep III.
No. 433 is inscribed with a series of addresses which can be read both
perpendicularly and horizontally. Among smaller objects inscribed with
the names of Ȧmen-ḥetep III and Queen Thi may be noted the bronze =menȧt
amulet=, stamp, vase, =brick=, =stibium pot=, plaque, =scarabs=, etc.,
which are exhibited in the Third and Fourth Egyptian Rooms.
[Illustration: Scarab of Ȧmen-ḥetep III, recording the names of the
parents of Queen Thi.
[No. 29,437.]
Scarab of Ȧmen-ḥetep III, recording the slaughter of 102 lions by the
king in the first ten years of his reign.
[No. 12,520.]]
Of the greatest importance for the history of this reign are the =Tell
al-Amarna Tablets=, a fine collection of which is exhibited in Table-case
=F= in the Babylonian Room. They consist of a series of letters and
despatches, etc., written chiefly to Ȧmen-ḥetep III and his son
Ȧmen-ḥetep IV, by kings and governors of countries, provinces, and towns
in Western Asia. Nearly all are written in a Semitic dialect, and in the
cuneiform character. They were found in a chamber to the east of the
palace of Ȧmen-ḥetep IV, in the city of Khut-Ȧten, near the modern Tell
al-Amarna. Among the =royal letters= in the British Museum are: =Draft=
of a letter from =Ȧmen-ḥetep III to Kadashman-Bêl=, king of Karaduniyash
(No. 29,784); a letter from =Kadashman-Bêl to Ȧmen-ḥetep III= (No.
29,787); letters from =Tushratta=, king of Mitani, to Ȧmen-ḥetep III
(Nos. 29,792, 29,791); letter from =Burraburiyash= to Ȧmen-ḥetep IV (No.
29,785); letter from =Tushratta to Thi=, queen of Egypt (No. 29,794);
etc.[37] (see =Plates XXXIV=, =XXXV=).
[Sidenote: B.C. 1400.]
=Ȧmen-ḥetep IV= was the son of Ȧmen-ḥetep III and Queen Thi, and reigned
about 20 years. In his youth he became a warm devotee of the god =Ȧten=,
whose visible symbol was the solar disc, and rejected the cult of Ȧmen,
or Ȧmen-Rā, the king of the gods. During the first few years of his
reign he lived at Thebes, and built there a Benben 𓃀𓈖𓃀𓈖𓉐, or shrine,
dedicated to Harmachis; and it seems that this was regarded by the
priests with disfavour. The pretensions of the priests of Ȧmen were
unbearable to him, and he therefore decided to leave Thebes and build a
royal capital elsewhere. The site chosen by him was on the east bank of
the Nile, near the modern villages of Ḥaggi Ḳandîl and Tell al-Amarna.
There he built a temple to Ȧten, a palace for himself, and houses for his
officials. As the new capital grew, so the enmity between the king and
the priests of Ȧmen increased. This can hardly be wondered at, for he
caused the name and representations of the god to be obliterated from the
monuments. Having moved to his new city, which he called =Khut-Ȧten=, he
abandoned his name of Ȧmen-ḥetep, because it contained the name of the
god he despised, and adopted the new name of =Khu-en-Ȧten=, _i.e._, the
“Spirit of Ȧten.” In his new capital he established a new form of the
ancient =cult of Ȧten=, as he understood it, in the temple Ḥet-Benben;
and the new worship was carried on with the forms and ceremonies which
had been in use in Heliopolis for some two thousand years. Incense was
burnt on the altars, offerings of all kinds were made, but no bloody
sacrifices were offered up; on certain occasions the king himself
officiated. The =followers of Ȧten= declared that their god was almighty;
and that he was the =sole creator= of the universe; they ascribed to him
a =monotheistic character=, or oneness, =which denied the existence of
any other god=. Their god was “One Alone,” and different in nature from
any of the other gods of Egypt. It was the =intolerance= of the followers
of the cult of Ȧten as formulated by Ȧmen-ḥetep IV which made them hated
by the priests of Ȧmen-Rā at Thebes.
[Illustration: PLATE XXXIV.
Letter from Ȧmen-ḥetep III, king of Egypt, to Kadashman-Bêl, king of
Karaduniyash.
[No. 1, Table-case F, Babylonian and Assyrian Room.]]
[Illustration: PLATE XXXV.
Letter from Tushratta, king of Mitani, to Ȧmen-ḥetep III, king of Egypt.
[No. 8, Table-case F, Babylonian and Assyrian Room.]]
The palace and houses of the new city were beautiful, and were richly
decorated. Art developed in a new direction, and was characterized by a
freedom and a naturalism which are never met with, before or after, in
Egyptian history. It sanctioned the use of new colours and new designs.
The reliefs and pictures of the king prove that his features were unusual
in character. He had a high, narrow, receding forehead, a large aquiline
nose, a thin mouth, projecting chin, a slender neck, rounded chest, and
his figure in many respects resembled that of a woman (see Wall-case 105,
Third Egyptian Room, Nos. =213= and =214=). Whilst the king was playing
the priest in his new city, and making arrangements for building shrines
to Ȧten in the Sûdân, his Asiatic Empire was breaking up. The Tell
al-Amarna letters show how rapidly the desert tribes began to harass the
Egyptian garrisons in Syria and Palestine, and to hem them in. Ȧmen-ḥetep
IV made no attempt to maintain his authority in Asia, or to keep what
his fathers had won in battle, and there is no record of any military
expedition during his reign. Shortly after his death Egypt had lost her
Asiatic Empire, his new city was destroyed, the cult of Ȧten died out,
and the shrine of Harmachis which he built at Thebes was pulled down,
and the stones rebuilt into the temple of Ȧmen. Ȧmen and his priests had
prevailed.
Among the monuments of this reign may be mentioned: =1.= Base of a
=statue= of =Ȧmen-ḥetep IV=, inscribed with the names and titles of
Khu-en-Ȧten; his cartouche as Ȧmen-ḥetep IV has been mutilated (Bay 13,
No. =435=). =2.= Base of a statue inscribed with the names of Khu-en-Ȧten
and his wife =Nefertith= (Bay 13, No. =436=). =3.= Stele of =Ptaḥ-māi=,
inscribed with prayers to Ȧten and Rā (Bay 10, No. =438=). The Tell
al-Amarna letters to Ȧmen-ḥetep IV will be found in Table-case F in the
Babylonian Room; the =scarabs=, =rings=, etc., in Table-cases D and J;
and a fine porcelain =boomerang= in Wall-case 150, in the Fourth Egyptian
Room. (For a rough outline drawing of Queen Nefertith (?) see Table-case
C in the Third Egyptian Room, No. 4.)
The last kings of this dynasty were =Tut-ānkh-Ȧmen=, =Ȧi=, and
=Ḥeru-em-ḥeb=; the first two of these married members of the family of
Ȧmen-ḥetep IV. Ḥeru-em-ḥeb was a wise and just king, and his reign was
long and prosperous. Of the monuments of these reigns may be mentioned:
the red =granite lion= inscribed with the name of Tut-ānkh-Ȧmen (Bay 10,
No. =431=; see =Plate XXXVI=); the stele of =Thuthu=, a steward of Ȧi
(Bay 12, No. =439=); the granite =statue of Ḥeru-em-ḥeb= (Bay 13, No.
=441=), and the statues of Ḥeru-em-ḥeb and the =god Menu=, or Ȧmsu (Bay
12, No. =442=); the =stibium tube= of Tut-ānkh-Ȧmen and his wife Queen
Ānkh-sen-Ȧmen (Wall-case 183, Fourth Egyptian Room, No. 23).
[Illustration: PLATE XXXVI.
Granite lion dedicated to Ȧmen-ḥetep III by Tut-ānkh-Ȧmen, about B.C.
1400.
[Northern Egyptian Gallery, Bay 10, No. 431.]]
[Illustration: PLATE XXXVII.
Seated statues of a priest, or high official, and his wife.
XVIIIth or XIXth dynasty.
[Southern Egyptian Gallery, Bay 18, No. 565.]]
The statues, stelae, etc., of the XVIIIth dynasty are numerous, and
many of them are of great interest as illustrating the perfection to
which art attained under the patronage of wealthy kings and the priests
of Ȧmen. Among them may be noted the following: Figure and stele
of =Nekht-Menu= or Nekht-Ȧmsu, holding a stele (Bay 2, No. =443=);
figures of =Ȧri-neferu= and his wife =Ȧpu= (Bay 3, No. =444=); stele of
=Ȧmen-em-ḥāt=, inscribed with adorations to Osiris (Bay 5, No =447=);
granite figure of =Kamesu=, a scribe (Bay 7, No. =452=); stele of
=Pasheṭ=, guardian of the northern lake and northern pillars of Ȧmen
(Bay 8, No. =455=); stele of =Nefer-renpit=, sculptured with a scene
representing the ceremony of Opening the Mouth (Bay 8, No. =456=); stele
of =Teḥutimes=, captain of the guard of the city gate of Memphis (Bay 8,
No. =460=); stele of =Ḥeru-em-ḥeb= a high official, and two door-jambs
inscribed with a hymn to the Sun-god (Bay 8, Nos. =461-463=); stele of
=Neb-Rā=, on which are sculptured four eyes and two ears 𓁻𓁻𓁻𓁻𓄔𓄔 (Bay
9, No. =467=); stele of =Ban-āa=, a royal scribe (Bay 9, No. =474=);
stele of =Ḥeru= and =Sutui=, twin brothers, architects and clerks of the
works at Thebes early in the XVIIIth dynasty (Bay 9, No. =475=); stele of
=Pasheṭ= inscribed with praises of the Syrian god =Reshpu= (Bay 10, No.
=478=); stele of =Qaḥa= (Bay 10, No. =483=); stele of =Māḥu=, captain of
the king’s bow (Bay 10, No. =487=); stele of =Anna= (Bay 11, No. =503=);
stele of =Sebek-ḥetep=, scribe of the wine-cellar (Bay 12, No. =513=);
sepulchral monument of =Thuthu=, with pyramidal top and libation basin
attached (Bay 13, No. =549=); granite figure of =Qen-nefer=, a high court
official (Central Saloon, No. =556=); three small inscribed =pyramids=
(Bay 18, Nos. =558-560=); painted =shrine of Ani=, a gardener (Bay 18,
No. =561=), etc. To the period of the XVIIIth dynasty may probably
be attributed the seated statues of a priest, or high administrative
official, and his wife in Bay 18, No. =565= (see =Plate XXXVII=). This
monument is undoubtedly one of the most beautiful examples of Egyptian
sculpture in the British Museum. Here, too, must be noted a very rare
object, viz., a =complete wooden door=, from the tomb of =Khensu-ḥetep=
at Thebes, on which is cut a scene representing the deceased making
offerings to Osiris-Khenti-Ȧmenti, in the presence of Hathor, lady of
Ȧmentet (Vestibule, North Wall, No. =566=).
Nineteenth Dynasty. From Thebes.
_About_ B.C. 1370.
=Rameses I=, the first king of this dynasty, appears to have ascended
the throne when he was an elderly man. He made an attempt to enter into
friendly relations with Sapalul, the chief of the Kheta, or Hittites;
and he seems to have raided the Sûdân. Monuments of his reign are few
(see the =scarabs= inscribed with his name in Table-case D in the Fourth
Egyptian Room).
The early years of the reign of =Seti I=, the son and successor of
Rameses I, were spent in fighting. He attacked the Shasu, or nomad tribes
of the Eastern Desert and of Palestine and Syria, and defeated them with
great slaughter, and advanced to the city of Kadesh, on the Orontes,
and conquered it. He returned to Egypt laden with spoil, including cedar
wood from Lebanon for making a new barge for Ȧmen-Rā at Thebes. He made
raids in the Sûdân, and forced the natives to assist him in reworking
the old gold mines and opening up new ones. He reopened the copper mines
in Sinai, and all the large quarries, for he needed much stone for his
buildings. He began to build a great temple at Abydos, but did not live
to finish it: the walls and pillars are ornamented with religious scenes
and figures of the gods, and the sculptures and reliefs are among the
most beautiful of Egypt. In one of the corridors is the famous King
List, or =Tablet of Abydos=, which contains the names of 76 kings, the
first name being that of Menȧ or Menes. At Karnak he added 79 columns to
the =Hall of Columns= (see =Plate XXX=); at Ḳurnah (Thebes) he finished
the temple begun by his father Rameses I; and he built a splendid tomb
in the Valley of the Tombs of the Kings (see page 174). From this tomb
came his magnificent alabaster =sarcophagus= which is now preserved in
Sir John Soane’s Museum in Lincoln’s Inn Fields. Seti I built a temple
at Dulgo, near the Third Cataract, probably in connexion with the gold
trade carried on by the government; he opened up roads to the gold
deposits in the Wâdî Ulâḳî, in the Eastern Desert; and he built a temple
at Radassîyah on the old caravan road which ran from Edfû to the emerald
mines of Gebel Zâbarâ, near Berenice, on the Red Sea; and dug wells at
many places in the desert. His reign was comparatively short, 10 or 15
years at most, and he was succeeded by his second son Rameses II, whom he
had made co-regent. Among the monuments of his reign are: Large =wooden
Ka-figure of Seti I=, found in a chamber in his tomb (Central Saloon, No.
=567=); three painted slabs from the tomb of Seti I (Central Saloon, Nos.
=568-570=); and a grey =granite clamp= from a wall in Seti’s temple at
Abydos, inscribed with his prenomen 𓍹𓇳𓏠𓁦𓍺, (Bay 18, No. =572=). Among
smaller objects may be noted the =scarabs=, glazed =vase=, and =ushabtiu
figures= of the king exhibited in the Second and Fourth Egyptian Rooms
(Wall-cases 78, 79, 150 and 152). A stele set up by him at Wâdî Ḥalfah in
the first year of his reign is in Bay 13 (No. =574=), and the stele of
=Rumā=, a scribe and priest in his temple at Abydos, is in Bay 11 (No.
=573=). The beautifully illustrated =Papyrus of Hunefer= was written in
this reign (No. 9901).
[Illustration: Kneeling statue of Rameses II holding a tablet for
offering.
[Southern Egyptian Gallery, Bay 17, No. 584.]]
=Ramessu=, or =Rameses II=, the =Sesostris= of the Greek writers, the son
of Seti I, was associated with his father in the rule of the kingdom at
an early age; he was probably between 20 and 30 years old when he became
sole king of Egypt. He reigned 67 years, and died aged about 100 years.
He married many wives, among them being some of his own near relatives,
and was the father of about 111 sons and 51 daughters. During the first
two or three years of his reign he made war on the tribes of the Sûdân,
and his victories over them were commemorated by the rock-hewn temple at
Bêt al-Walî, near Kalâbshah. Reproductions in plaster of the scenes of
the paying of tribute to him are exhibited on the North and South walls
of the Fourth Egyptian Room. In the fourth year of his reign Rameses was
fighting in Syria, and so began the series of battles with the Kheta
and their allies which lasted for fifteen or sixteen years. In the end
neither side was victorious, and finally Rameses was obliged to make a
treaty with the prince of the Kheta, in which it was agreed that Egypt
was not to invade Kheta territory, and that the Kheta were not to invade
Egypt. The Kheta admitted the sovereignty of Rameses over all territory
south of the Nahr al-Kalb, or Dog River, near Bêrût, in Syria, and the
region north of it was to be Kheta territory for ever. The most important
among the long series of battles was the Egyptian attack on Kadesh, on
the Orontes; it was temporarily successful, but it cost Rameses dear.
During the struggle, Rameses had charged among the enemy far ahead of
his troops, who had either been killed or had run away. When the king
realized his position, he found that he was surrounded by the foe, and
was in the greatest danger of being slain. Undaunted, however, he girded
on his armour, and in the strength of the gods Menthu and Bāl (Baal,
𓃀𓂝𓂋𓏤) he turned on his foes, and cut his way through them, slaying
large numbers as he escaped from their midst. “I was,” said the king, “by
myself, for my soldiers and my horsemen had forsaken me, and not one of
them was bold enough to come to my aid.” This episode was treated in a
highly poetical manner in a composition generally known as the =Poem of
Pentaurt=. As a matter of fact Pentaurt was not the author, but merely
the scribe who made the fullest copy of the work known, namely, that
in the British Museum Papyrus, Sallier III. Thirteen years after the
conclusion of the treaty with the Kheta, _i.e._, in the thirty-fourth
year of his reign, Rameses II married the daughter of the prince of the
Kheta, whose Egyptian name was Maā-Rā ur-neferu.
[Illustration: PLATE XXXVIII.
Front of the rock-hewn temple built at Abû Simbel by Rameses II, B.C.
1330, to commemorate his victory over the Kheta.]
Rameses was a great builder; his name is found everywhere on monuments
and buildings in Egypt, and he frequently usurped the works of his
predecessors and inscribed his own name on statues, etc., which he did
not make. The smallest repair of a sanctuary was sufficient excuse for
him to have his name inscribed on pillars, architraves, door-jambs, and
every prominent part of the building. His greatest works were: =1.= The
rock-hewn =temple of Abû-Simbel=, dedicated to Ȧmen, Rā-Harmachis and
Ptaḥ (see =Plate XXXVIII=); its length is 185 feet, its height 90 feet,
and the four colossal statues of the king in front of it are each 60 feet
high. In the large hall are eight square pillars, each 30 feet high, each
with a colossal figure of Osiris, 17 feet high, standing against it. =2.=
The rock-hewn =temple of Bêt al-Walî= at Kalâbshah. =3.= The =Ramesseum=
at Thebes, called by Diodorus the “Tomb of Osymandyas,” and by Strabo
the “Memnonium.” The granite statue of the king which stood before the
second pylon was 60 feet high, and weighed about 900 tons. He completed
the =Hall of Columns= at Karnak; added to the temple of Ȧmen-ḥetep III at
Luxor; and set up several statues of himself and two granite obelisks,
each about 80 feet high. In the Delta he rebuilt =Tanis=, which became
a city of the first importance, and he built the city of Pa-Temu, the
=Pithom= of Exodus i, II, which is now called =Tall al-Maskhûṭah=; from
the latter place came the statue of the “Recorder of Pithom” (Bay 21, No.
=776=). At Memphis, Abydos, and every important city of Egypt and Nubia,
he carried on building operations; and he dug wells in Wâdî Ulâḳî, in
the desert to the east of Dakkah, and worked the gold mines there. His
reign was one of great material prosperity, and he lived long enough to
carry out every work of importance which he planned. He was not a great
soldier like Thothmes III, or a great administrator and diplomatist like
Ȧmen-ḥetep III; and the glory and power, and the territory of Egypt were
not so great as in the days of those kings. Few of the works carried out
by Rameses can be compared with those of the great kings of the XVIIIth
dynasty in beauty of design, finish, and solidity.
[Illustration: Façade of the Ramesseum in Western Thebes.
About B.C. 1330.]
[Illustration: Statue of Rameses II, with the name of Mer-en-Ptaḥ I cut
on the shoulders and breast.
[Central Saloon, No. 577.]
Upper part of a statue of Rameses II. Found on the Island of Elephantine.
[Central Saloon, Bay 14, No. 582.]]
[Illustration: PLATE XXXIX.
Upper portions of a colossal statue of Rameses II, B.C. 1330.
[Central Saloon, No. 576.]]
The monuments of this reign are very numerous, and among them may be
noted the following: Wooden =Ka-figure= of Rameses II, from his tomb at
Thebes (Central Saloon, No. =575=). Upper portion of a colossal granite
=statue of Rameses II=, which was originally painted red, and was one
of a pair that stood in the Ramesseum in Western Thebes (see =Plate
XXXIX=); weight about 7 tons 5 cwt. (Central Saloon, No. =576=). Colossal
=statue of Rameses II=, on the shoulders and breast of which are cut the
prenomen and name of =Seti Mer-en-Ptaḥ= (Central Saloon, No. =577=).
Statue of Rameses II from Elephantine (Bay 14, No. =582=). Kneeling
statue of Rameses II, holding before him a tablet of offerings (Bay 17,
No. =584=). Portion of a statue of Rameses II; on one side of the plinth
is sculptured a figure of a favourite wife called =Batau-ānth=: from
Ṣarâbît al-Khâdim in the Peninsula of Sinai (Central Saloon, No. =587=).
With these should be compared the =cast= of the head of a colossal
statue of the king which was set up before the temple of Ptaḥ at Memphis
(Central Saloon, No. =588=), and the =cast= of another colossal statue of
the king at Abû-Simbel (Vestibule, No. =589=). The width of the face of
the latter is 8 feet 9 inches, and the length from brow to chin is 9 feet
8 inches. From the temple built by Rameses at Abydos comes the famous
King List, or =Second Tablet of Abydos=, which, when complete, contained
the prenomens of 52 of his predecessors on the throne of Egypt (Bay 6,
No. =592=); from Athribis (Benha) comes the =granite lion= (Bay 14, No.
=593=); from Abû-Simbel the interesting pair of =hawk-headed sphinxes=
(Bay 15, Nos. =594=, =595=); from Pithom the =granite hawk= (Central
Saloon, No. =596=); and from Memphis the =fist= of a colossal statue (Bay
16, No. =597=).
Of considerable interest, too, are the =granite columns= (Nos. =598=,
=599=). The first is from the temple of Bubastis, and on it, in places,
are seen the names of =Osorkon II=; its total height is 20 feet 8 inches
and its weight about 11 tons 5 cwt. The second is monolithic and is from
the temple of Ḥeru-shefit, the Arsaphes of the Greeks at Herakleopolis;
in places the names of =Menephthah I= have been added. Its height is 17
feet 2 inches, and its weight about 6 tons 12 cwt. The =altar= of Rameses
II is in Bay 16 (No. =600=). In connexion with the colossal statues of
this period may be noted the upper portions of two =statues of Queens= or
goddesses, in the Central Saloon, Nos. =601=, =602=. They were found by
Belzoni at Abû-Simbel, and most probably represent wives of Rameses II.
The art of the reign of Rameses II is illustrated by several small
objects bearing his name, _e.g._, the =scarabs= (Table-case D, Fourth
Egyptian Room); =gilded vase= for eye-paint (Wall-case 143, Fourth
Egyptian Room); a scribe’s =palette= (Table-case C, Third Egyptian Room);
a beautiful =glazed bowl= inscribed with the king’s names and titles
(Wall-case 151, Fourth Egyptian Room); =model= for a relief, with a
figure of the =goddess Qeṭesh= (Table-case C, Third Egyptian Room);
glazed =boomerang= (Wall-case 151, Fourth Egyptian Room); bronze figure
of the king (Wall-case 191, same room), etc.
[Illustration: Statue of Khā-em-Uast, son of Rameses II.
[Southern Egyptian Gallery, Bay 18, No. 615.]]
The statues and stelae of officials of Rameses II are numerous, and
the inscriptions on them supply much information about the works and
administration of the country. Thus we have: the statue of =Paneḥsi=, the
scribe and director of the storehouse of gold from the Sûdân (Central
Saloon, No. =603=); the kneeling figure of =Paser=, a Governor of the
Sûdân (Central Saloon, No. =604=); the stele of =Ȧmen-em-ȧnt=, a scribe
of the soldiers, who held several high offices (Bay 11, No. =607=); the
stele of =Setau=, another Governor of the Sûdân (Bay 17, No. =608=); the
stele of =Ȧmen-ḥetep=, a king’s messenger (Bay 19, No. =610=); the stele
of =Ptaḥ-em-uȧa=, keeper of the king’s stables (Bay 20, No. =611=); and
the stelae of =Bakāa= and =Nefer-ḥrȧ=, who died in the thirty-eighth and
sixty-second years of the king’s reign respectively (Bay 19, No. =612=;
Bay 20, No. =613=). The inscribed statue of =Khā-em-Uast= (Bay 18, No.
=615=), a son of Rameses II, is of great interest, both historically and
linguistically. Khā-em-Uast was a _Sem_ priest in the temple of Ptaḥ of
Memphis, and a man of great learning, and he was held in high repute as
a magician. He managed the affairs of the country for about twenty-five
years before his death, which took place in the fifty-fifth year of the
reign of his father.
[Illustration: Statue of Seti II Mer-en-Ptaḥ II, king of Egypt, B.C.
1266, holding a shrine surmounted by a head of the ram of Ȧmen.
[Southern Egyptian Gallery, Bay 21, No. 616.]]
Mer-en-Ptaḥ, or =Menephthah=, was associated with his father in the rule
of the kingdom for about twelve years before he became sole king. In the
fifth year of his reign Egypt was attacked by a confederation of tribes
from Libya, and by certain peoples from the northern shores and islands
of the Mediterranean. Menephthah fortified his towns and collected an
army, and in the fierce battle which followed he was victorious. The
Libyan king barely escaped with his life; but six of his brothers and
sons and over 6,000 of his soldiers were slain, and 9,000 were taken
prisoners. It is probable that the =Exodus= took place during the early
years of this reign. In the year of his victory he caused a Hymn of
Triumph to be cut upon the back of a stele of Ȧmen-ḥetep III at Thebes,
and among the peoples of Palestine whom he conquered are mentioned
the =Israelites=, 𓇌𓊃𓏭𓂋𓇋𓄿𓂋𓏤𓌙𓀀𓁐𓏪. His mummy was found in the tomb of
Ȧmen-ḥetep II at Thebes, and is now in Cairo. Like his father he caused
his names to be cut on monuments which he had not made, _e.g._, the lion
of Ȧmenemḥāt III (No. 173), the pillar of Ȧmen-ḥetep III (No. 419), and a
statue (No. 577) and pillar of his father (No. 599). Among the monuments
of his reign may be mentioned the =door-jamb= from his temple at Memphis
(No. =1169=). The remaining kings of the XIXth dynasty were:—
=1.= =Seti II Mer-en-Ptaḥ.= See his =statue= holding a shrine with a head
of Ȧmen (Bay 21, No. =616=), a slab from his tomb at Thebes (Central
Saloon, No. =617=), and a =plaque= and a =scarab= in the Third and Fourth
Egyptian Rooms (Wall-case 124 and Table-case D). The D’Orbiney Papyrus in
the British Museum containing the =Tale of the Two Brothers= was written
during the reign of this king. =2.= =Ȧmen-mes=, of whose reign nothing is
known. =3.= =Sa-Ptaḥ=, of whom many reliefs are found at various places
in Egypt. On his death a period of anarchy followed, and nothing like
order prevailed in the country until =Set-nekht=, a relative of Rameses
II, obtained supreme power.
The smaller monuments of the XIXth dynasty in the British Museum are
very interesting, and, though the work of the sculptor and engraver
is not so good as that of the XVIIIth dynasty, it is important for
illustrating the methods employed at a time when quantity was more valued
than quality. The inscriptions too are valuable, for they afford much
information on minor points of the Egyptian religion. Among the statues
and stelae of this period may be noted: a finely sculptured relief from
the tomb of =Mes=, a priest of the =KA= (Bay 17, No. =635=); the stele
of =Ȧmen-Rā-mes=, a priest of the statue of King =Mer-en-Ptaḥ= (Bay
20, No. =636=); the painted limestone statues of =Māḥu= and his wife
=Sebta=, fine work (Central Saloon, No. =637=); the granite figure of
=Rui=, high-priest of Ȧmen (Central Saloon, No. =638=); the stele of
Ptaḥ-mes, the comptroller of the grain supply of Egypt (Central Saloon,
No. =642=); the stele of =Pa-ser=, the scribe and master mason of all
Egypt (Central Saloon, No. =643=); the seated figure of =Pa-mer-ȧḥau=,
a commander-in-chief (Central Saloon, No. =644=); the stele of the
superintendent of all the priests and all the gold workers of the Sûdân,
from Wâdî Ḥalfah (Central Saloon, No. =645=); the stele of =Qaḥa=, a
master craftsman, on which are sculptured figures of the Syrian deities
=Kent= and =Reshpu= and =Ānthȧt= (Ȧnaitis), and the Egyptian god Menu,
an important monument (Bay 10, No. =646=; see =Plate XL=); the stele of
the god =Reshpu= (Bay 17, No. =647=); stele of =Ḥeru=, painted with a
scene of the worship of =Kent=, or =Qeṭesh=, =Reshpu= and Menu (Bay 17,
No. =650=); the stele of =Ṭāṭā-āa=, an overseer of scribes (Bay 12, No.
=652=); the granite coffin of a =high-priest of Memphis= (Bay 17, No.
=654=).
[Illustration: PLATE XL.
Sepulchral stele of Qaḥa, sculptured with figures of the foreign deities
Kent, Reshpu, and Ānthȧt, and the Egyptian god Menu.
XIXth dynasty.
[Northern Egyptian Gallery, Bay 10, No. 646.]]
Twentieth Dynasty. From Thebes.
_About_ B.C. 1200.
We learn from the great papyrus of Rameses III that after the downfall of
the XIXth dynasty the land of Egypt fell into a state of anarchy, every
man acting according to his own judgment, and no one holding supreme
authority for many years. The country was in the hands of the nobles and
the governors of the cities who fought against each other. This continued
for some years, and then “years of want” succeeded, and a certain Syrian
called =Ȧrsu= 𓇋𓀀𓁹𓂋𓇓𓏲𓌙𓀀, rose to power. Gathering his followers about
him, he levied tribute and seized the goods of the people. As he paid
no honour to the gods of Egypt and did nothing for their temples, they
in due course set him aside and placed on the throne =Set-nekht=, who
brought the country into order, and re-established the worship of the
gods, and provided the temples with offerings. His reign was short,
and he was succeeded by =Rameses III=, the chief event of whose reign
of 31 years was the victory of the Egyptians over a confederation of
peoples from Philistia, Cyprus, Crete, and the northern shores of the
Mediterranean, who attacked Egypt by land and sea. Rameses III collected
an army and a fleet, and in the battle which followed on the coast of
Southern Palestine, his forces were victorious. Multitudes of the enemy
were slain on land, and those who succeeded in reaching their ships
could not escape, for the fleet of the Egyptians hemmed them in, and a
great slaughter ensued. Rameses then marched through Syria, and having
collected much spoil, returned to Egypt. Soon afterwards the Libyans
attacked Egypt on the west, but they were quickly defeated and spoiled.
Rameses appears to have kept one fleet in the Mediterranean and one in
the Red Sea, for trading purposes, and this “sea-power” was probably
the source of the great material prosperity of Egypt under his reign.
The peace and security of the country were such that he could boast:
“I made it possible for an Egyptian woman to walk with a bold and free
step whithersoever she pleased, and no man or woman among the people
of the land would molest her.” Rameses built the so-called “Pavilion”
and the great Temple of Madînat Habû at Thebes, and a small palace at
Tell al-Yahûdîyyah (see the glazed tiles, etc., from it in the Fourth
Egyptian Room), and he richly endowed the temples of Heliopolis, Memphis,
and Thebes, and gave them gifts of an almost incredible amount.[38] Lists
of all his benefactions and a valuable summary of his reign are preserved
in the great =Papyrus of Rameses III=, the longest Egyptian papyrus in
the world (see page 74). Among the monuments and small objects bearing
his name may be mentioned: The base of a pillar from a =shrine of Rameses
III= (Bay 18, No. =716=); a slab from one of his buildings at Ṣaḳḳârah
(Central Saloon, No. =717=); and the royal =ushabtiu= figures (Wall-case
85, Second Egyptian Room, Nos. 12, 13).
On the death of Rameses III the power of Egypt began rapidly to decline,
and the succeeding kings of the dynasty, each of whom bore the name of
Rameses, found their authority more and more usurped by the high-priests
of Ȧmen, the great god of Thebes. Among the objects inscribed with the
name of =Rameses IV= are =scarabs= (Table-case D, Fourth Egyptian Room),
a fragment of an =alabaster vase= (Wall-case 137, same room), and the
stele of =Ḥeru-ȧ=, a royal scribe (Bay 24, No. =719=).
Under the rule of =Rameses V-VIII= the people of Thebes became poor,
and the living were driven to plunder the tombs of kings and queens for
the sake of the gold ornaments on the mummies and in the coffins. Under
=Rameses IX= the government undertook a prosecution of the principal
thieves, and appointed a commission to report upon the extent of the
=robberies of the royal tombs=. Part of the statement of the examination
of the tombs is preserved in the Abbott Papyrus in the British Museum
(No. 10,221). During the course of the enquiry a number of the accused
were beaten on the hands and feet, and confessed to breaking into the
tombs of Sebek-em-sa-f and queen Nub-khā-s. In the reign of Rameses IX,
the =high-priest of Ȧmen=, called =Ȧmen-ḥetep=, held great power, and
induced the king to authorize him to levy taxes on the people for the
maintenance of his temple and priesthood. Under =Rameses X= further
prosecutions of the tomb robbers took place, but the government was
powerless to stop the depredations. =Rameses XI= and =Rameses XII= were
weaker than their predecessors, and allowed the high-priest of Ȧmen
to rule the country. On the death of Rameses XII, the high-priest,
=Ḥer-Ḥeru=, seized the supreme power, and assumed all the titles and
functions of the king of Egypt. But the priests of Ȧmen were as little
able to maintain the power of Egypt as the kings Rameses, and they could
not make their authority effective even in the Delta, or Northern Egypt.
Thus it fell out that Egypt became once more divided into two kingdoms,
viz., the Kingdom of the North, ruled from Tanis by =Nessu-ba-neb-Ṭeṭ=,
whose name was Graecized by Manetho under the form of =Smendes=, and the
Kingdom of the South, ruled from Thebes by =Ḥer-Ḥeru=, the first of the
=priest-kings= of Egypt. For some years, however, Smendes must have been
king of all Egypt, for when repairs of an urgent character were needed
for the temples of Thebes, it was he who had the quarries opened, and
collected the workmen, and directed the building operations which saved
one of the temples from falling down.
The monuments of the XXth dynasty are characterized by coarseness of work
and lack of finish, but the inscriptions on them are of considerable
value linguistically. Among large objects may be mentioned the =granite
coffin of Setau=, a governor of the Sûdân (Bay 19, No. =720=); the
=libation basin= (Bay 19, No. =722=); the seated figures of =Ȧmen-Rā and
Mut= (Bay 18, No. =728=); the stele of =Pai=, comptroller of a chief
queen (Bay 22, No. =752=); and the shrine of =Ȧmen-em-ḥeb=, a scribe of
the king’s bowmen (Bay 17, No. =754=).
Twenty-First Dynasty.
B.C. 1050 (?)
KINGS OF TANIS.
=Nessu-ba-neb-Ṭeṭ (Smendes).=
=Pasebkhānut I.=
=Ȧmen-em-Ȧpt.=
=Sa-Ȧmen.=
=Pasebkhānut II.=
PRIEST-KINGS OF THEBES.
=Ḥer-Ḥeru.=
=Paiānkh.=
=Painetchem I.=
=Painetchem II.=
=Masaherth.=
=Men-kheper-Rā.=
=Painetchem III.=
The reigns of all these kings are historically of little importance. As
soon as =Ḥer-Ḥeru= had proclaimed himself king at Thebes, he assumed a
series of titles indicating that he was the temporal as well as spiritual
head of Egypt. One of the chief works carried out by the priest-kings
was in connexion with the repair and =removal of the royal mummies=
from their tombs to places of safety. The mummies of Seti I and Rameses
II were removed from tomb to tomb, but the pillaging continued, and we
read that many of the royal mummies required to be repaired, re-swathed,
and provided with new coffins. The rule of the priest-kings was not
successful, and several serious riots seem to have occurred at Thebes
through their neglect of the temporal affairs of the country. One of
the most important objects of the reign of Ḥer-Ḥeru is the copy of the
=Book of the Dead= which was written for his wife =Queen Netchemet=;
an important portion of it was presented to the British Museum by
HIS MAJESTY THE KING in 1903, and this is exhibited in the Southern
Egyptian Gallery, No. =758= (see =Plates I= and =XLI=). The vignettes
are very fine examples of the work of the period, and the texts contain
interesting hymns to Rā and Osiris, and a valuable version of one of the
most important sections of the Book of the Dead, viz., Chapter XVII. This
papyrus was found at Thebes. A number of =ushabtiu= figures, inscribed
with the names of =Nesi-Khensu=, =Ḥent-taui=, the =Painetchems=,
=Maāt-ka-Rā=, and other members of the families of the priest-kings,
will be found in Wall-cases 153, 154, in the Fourth Egyptian Room. The
largest monument of this dynasty in the British Museum is a =lintel= from
a temple of =Sa-Ȧmen= at Memphis (No. =1170=). In the First Egyptian Room
are exhibited several very fine mummies and coffins belonging to the
period of this dynasty, and in the Second Room several typical examples
of =ushabtiu figures= and =boxes=, which illustrate the funerary art of
the period. The monuments of the Tanite kings are few and unimportant.
The history of the next two hundred and fifty years (B.C. 1050-800) is
full of difficulty. When the rule of the priest-kings of Thebes came to
an end the Kingdom of the South appears to have passed into the hands of
a series of weak and incapable men, not one of whom succeeded in making
himself “King of the South and North.” On the death of the last Tanite
king of the XXIst dynasty (about B.C. 950), the Kingdom of the North
was seized by Shashanq, a descendant of a Libyan chief, who established
his seat of power at Bubastis. He and his descendants formed the XXIInd
dynasty, which lasted till about B.C. 760. About this time the priests
of Ȧmen departed from Thebes to Nubia, and soon afterwards the supreme
power in the North was seized by local chiefs dwelling at Tanis (XXIIIrd
dynasty), who made a league with all the feudal lords in the Delta, with
the view of taking possession of the whole country. When news of this
reached Piānkhi, king of Nubia, he forthwith invaded Egypt and conquered
it. After his return to Nubia, a Nubian dynasty was established at
Thebes, and a local chief of Saïs became King of the North, about B.C.
733. He represents the XXIVth dynasty. The kings of the XXVth dynasty
(about B.C. 700) were Nubians, and the kings of the XXVIth dynasty were
descendants of the chiefs of Saïs who were conquered by the Nubian king
Piānkhi, about B.C. 740.
[Illustration: PLATE XLI.
Vignettes from the Papyrus of Queen Netchemet.
Ḥer-Ḥeru and Netchemet praying.
The rising sun on the horizon.
The Ape-gods and Isis and Nephthys adoring the rising sun.
[Southern Egyptian Gallery, No. 758.]
Presented by His Majesty the King, 1903.]
Twenty-Second Dynasty. From Bubastis.
_About_ B.C. 950.
The first king of this dynasty was =Shashanq I=, the =Shishak= of I Kings
xiv, 25; 2 Chronicles xii, 5, 7, 9. He was of Libyan extraction, being
descended from =Buiu-uaua= 𓃀𓅱𓇌𓅱𓍯𓄿𓊕𓏮𓀭 a Libyan prince, who flourished
about B.C. 1150, and one of whose descendants married Meḥt-en-usekht,
high-priestess of Ȧmen, and became the father of Nemareth, who in his
turn became the father of Shashanq. A daughter of Nemareth owned the
=inlaid gold bracelets= exhibited in Table-case J in the Fourth Egyptian
Room (Nos. 134, 135). The principal event in the reign of Shashanq was
the invasion of Palestine and capture of Jerusalem. He spoiled the
Temple, and carried off much gold and silver, and took away the bucklers
and shields of Solomon, and also the golden quivers which David had
taken from the king of Zobah. He gave Jeroboam, king of Judah, one of
his daughters to wife. On his return to Egypt he caused a record of
this campaign to be cut upon the second pylon of the Temple of Karnak,
and added a list of all the towns and villages which he had conquered
in Palestine. Among them are the names of many places familiar from the
Bible narrative, but the statement that “the king of Judah” is mentioned
is incorrect. Shashanq repaired the Temple of Mut at Thebes, and set
up in it a number of seated granite statues of the goddess =Sekhet=,
two fine examples of which, inscribed with the king’s names and titles,
are exhibited in the Southern Egyptian Gallery, Nos. =763=, =764=. A
son of Shashanq named =Ȧuputh= was viceroy of the South, to whom is
due the removal of the royal mummies from their tombs to the tomb of
Ȧst-em-khebit at =Dêr al-Baḥarî=, where, together with the coffins and
funerary furniture, they were secreted, the pit being filled up with
sand, stones, etc., and the entrance carefully walled up. This hiding
place remained intact until 1872, when it was discovered accidentally by
the Arabs. (For the inscribed base of a statue of =Ȧuputh=, see Bay 19,
No. =765=.)
[Illustration: Seated figure of Ānkh-renp-nefer, the “Good Recorder” of
the town of Pithom, who flourished in the reign of Osorkon II, about B.C.
900.
[Southern Egyptian Gallery, Bay 21, No. 776.]]
Another son of Shashanq I, named =Uasarken=, or =Osorkon I=, became
king of Egypt, and married Tasheṭ-Khensu, and Maāt-ka-Rā, the daughter
of Pasebkhānut II, the last of the Tanite kings of the XXIst dynasty.
The son of Osorkon I and Maāt-ka-Rā was called Shashanq, and was made
high priest of Ȧmen; he dedicated to the god the fine quartzite =statue
of Ḥāpi=, the Nile-god, exhibited in the Southern Egyptian Gallery,
Bay 22, No. =766=. Osorkon I was succeeded by =Thekeleth I=, who was
succeeded by =Osorkon II=, famous for the works which he carried out in
the Temple of Bast, the great goddess of Bubastis, the =Pibeseth= of the
Bible. From this site came many important monuments, among which may
be mentioned: The massive granite =Hathor-headed capital= of a pillar
(see =Plate XLII=; Bay 16, No. =768=); and the slabs sculptured with
figures of Osorkon II and Bast, and figures of Osorkon II and his =Queen
Karāmā= (Bay 23, No. =769=). Osorkon II perpetuated the names of the
great kings his predecessors, and accordingly we find on granite slabs
from his temple the names of =Khufu=, =Khāfrā=, etc., and figures of
=Ȧmen-ḥetep II=, =Seti I=, etc. (Bay 23, Nos. =771-773=). Like Rameses
II, Mer-en-Ptaḥ, and other kings, Osorkon II caused his name to be
cut upon monuments of other kings, _e.g._, the statue of Usertsen III
(Vestibule, No. =163=) and the grey granite statue of Ȧmenemḥāt III (Bay
20, No. =775=). In his reign flourished the =good recorder of Pithom=,
whose statue (Bay 21, No. =776=) was found at Pithom. The reigns of the
other kings of this dynasty, Shashanq II, Thekeleth II, Shashanq III,
Pamȧi, and Shashanq IV were unimportant.
[Illustration: PLATE XLII.
Hathor-headed capital from the temple of Osorkon II at Bubastis.
XXIInd dynasty, B.C. 866.
[Central Saloon, No. 768.]]
Twenty-Third Dynasty. From Tanis.
B.C. 766.
The principal kings of this dynasty were =Peṭā-Bast= and =Osorkon III=,
who reigned in the Delta.
It seems that a short time before the reign of Peṭā-Bast, the priests
of Ȧmen had found it impossible to maintain their position at Thebes,
and therefore, having hidden the mummies and coffins of the members of
their order in a secret place, which was not discovered until 1892,
they retreated to the South and settled at Napata, a city at the foot
of the Fourth Cataract. (For examples of the coffins of the priests of
Ȧmen of this period, see First Egyptian Room, Wall-cases 11-15.) A few
years after their arrival, they appear to have persuaded =Piānkhi=, the
king of the Northern Sûdân, to invade Egypt and to seize the kingdom of
the South at least, to which, in view of the close relationship of the
governing powers at Napata with those at Thebes, he might be assumed to
have a just claim. For some time Piānkhi did nothing, but at length, in
the twenty-first year of his reign, hearing that all the princes of the
Northern Kingdom had united their forces, and were attempting to seize
the country, he ordered his army to advance into Egypt. In a very short
time great successes were reported. Thereupon he joined his troops, and
his progress was victorious and rapid. City after city fell before his
attack, and on the capture of Memphis, Egypt lay vanquished at his feet.
The governors came in one after another, and at length Tafnekht, their
leader, sent in his submission accompanied by gifts. Piānkhi filled his
boats with spoil and returned to Napata, where he built a great temple
to Ȧmen, and set up a stele recording his victories. (For a cast of the
stele see Central Saloon, No. =793=.) After Piānkhi’s return to Nubia,
=Osorkon III=, perhaps with =Thekeleth III= as co-regent, reigned at
Thebes. To the latter half of this dynasty probably belongs the stele
of =Prince Ȧuuaruath=, son of Osorkon and high-priest of Ȧmen (Bay 22,
No. =777=), and the monument mentioning a king with the Horus name of
Ka-nekht-khā-em-Uast (Bay 21, No. =778=).
Twenty-Fourth Dynasty. From Saïs.
The principal king of this dynasty was =Bakenrenef=, the =Bocchoris=
of the Greeks, the son of Tafnekht of Saïs. His reign was short, but
tradition assert that he was one of the six great law-givers of Egypt.
About this time a Nubian called =Kashta= ruled at Thebes, and married
=Shep-en-Ȧpt=, the high-priestess of Ȧmen; their son Shabaka became the
first king of the XXVth dynasty. Among the monuments of this period
may be mentioned: The =altar, stand, and libation bowl=, dedicated by
Nes-Ȧmsu to Kashta, Shep-en-Ȧpt, and Ȧmenȧrṭās (Bay 20, No. =794=);
the base of a statue inscribed with the names of =Shep-en-Ȧpt I=,
=Shep-en-Ȧpt II=, etc. (Bay 20, No. =795=); and the alabaster vessel of
=Kashta= and =Ȧmenȧrṭās= (Wall-case 139, Fourth Egyptian Room, No. 84).
Twenty-Fifth Dynasty. From Nubia.
B.C. 700.
=Shabaka=, or Sabaco, whom some identify with =So= of 2 Kings xvii, 4,
was a contemporary of Sargon and Sennacherib, kings of Assyria. With
one or other of these kings he must have had correspondence, for two
seals bearing the name of Shabaka were found among the tablets of the
Royal Library at Nineveh. (See Nineveh Gallery, Table-case I, No. 32,
etc.) Among the objects bearing his name are several =scarabs=, and an
alabaster =vase= in the Fourth Egyptian Room (Table-case D and Wall-case
139), and a basalt slab (Bay 25, No. =797=) inscribed with a copy of
a mythological text, copied by the king’s order from an old, half
obliterated document. The portion of the text surviving contains legends
of Rā, Osiris, Set, Horus, Ptaḥ and other gods; and it seems to imply
that all their powers were absorbed by Ptaḥ, in whose temple the slab
was set up. Of Shabaka’s sister, the great Princess =Ȧmenȧrṭās=, may be
mentioned the following objects: A fine inscribed =statue= (Wall-case
107, Third Egyptian Room), her =lapis-lazuli scarab= (Table-case D,
Fourth Egyptian Room), and a =steatite cylinder= inscribed with her names
and titles (Wall-case 193, same room). This princess possessed great
power in Thebes, and she repaired portions of some of the great temples
of that city, and built a small chapel near the temple of Ȧmen. She
re-established the worship of the gods, and devoted a large proportion of
her property to the restoration of their statues and the observance of
their festivals.
Shabaka was succeeded by =Shabataka= (see a bronze shrine dedicated by
him to Ȧmen-Rā in Wall-case 123 in the Fourth Egyptian Room), of whom
little is known. He was followed by =Taharqa=, the =Tirhâḳâh= of the
Bible, (2 Kings xix, 9), the son of a farmer and the lady =Āqleq=, who
began to reign between B.C. 693 and 691. He was an ally of =Hezekiah=,
king of Judah. About 676, =Esarhaddon=, king of Assyria, crushed the
revolt in Palestine, and six years later he invaded Egypt, defeated
Taharqa, captured Memphis, and appointed twenty governors over the
various provinces of the country. After the death of Esarhaddon, in
668, Taharqa returned and proclaimed himself king of Egypt at Memphis;
but =Ashur-bani-pal=, the new king of Assyria, marched against him and
defeated his forces, which were assembled at Karbaniti, a city probably
situated near the north-east frontier of Egypt. Taharqa fled, and
Ashur-bani-pal marched into Egypt, crushed the enemy, and re-appointed
the governors who had been appointed by his father.
Taharqa repaired several temples at Thebes, and built a large temple to
Ȧmen at Napata, and a small one in honour of Usertsen III at Semnah. For
a bronze =figure of the king=, and two =plaques= and =scarabs= bearing
his name, see Table-case K, Wall-case 193, and Table-case D in the Third
and Fourth Egyptian Rooms.
The successor of Taharqa was =Tanuath Ȧmen=, the Tandamanie of the
cuneiform inscriptions, who had been co-regent with him. After the death
of Taharqa, as the result of a dream Tanuath Ȧmen invaded Egypt, and
captured Heliopolis; he tried to turn the Assyrians out of Memphis, but
failed. Hearing that the king of Assyria was coming with a large army, he
fled to Thebes, whither he was followed by the Assyrians, who sacked the
city. Tanuath-Ȧmen fled once more, and his subsequent history is unknown.
A cast of the =Stele of the Dream= is exhibited in Bay 22, No. =799=, and
an account of the burning and pillage of Thebes is given on the great
=cylinder of Ashur-bani-pal= (Table-case H, Babylonian Room), and the
calamities which came upon the city are described by the prophet Nahum
(iii, 10).
Twenty-Sixth Dynasty. From Saïs.
_About_ B.C. 666.
=Psemthek I=, or =Psammetichus=, was the son of Nekau, governor of
Saïs, and married Shep-en-Ȧpt, the daughter of Piānkhi and Ȧmenȧrṭās
I. Thus, by marriage, he obtained a claim to the throne of Egypt. He
appears to have fought against the Assyrians on every opportunity for
many years, and at length by the help of Carian and Ionian mercenaries
he succeeded in expelling them, and in making himself master of all
Egypt. He established garrisons at Elephantine, Pelusium, Daphnae, and
Marea. He protected the Greeks, a colony of whom he settled in the city
of Naukratis. He encouraged trade of every kind, and embarked in many
commercial enterprises. He rebuilt, or enlarged, the temple of the
goddess =Neith of Saïs= (see bronze figures of her in Wall-case 125,
Fourth Egyptian Room), and built a gallery in the =Serapeum= at Ṣaḳḳârah.
Among the monuments of his reign are: An =intercolumnar slab= sculptured
with a scene representing the king making an offering to the gods; from
the temple of Temu at Rosetta (Bay 24, No. =800=). A shaft of a column,
and a portion of a statue, inscribed with his names and titles (Bay 24,
Nos. =801=, =802=). For smaller objects inscribed with his name see the
=Foundation Deposits= and the =figure of Isis= (Table-cases K and H,
Third Egyptian Room), his =ushabti figure= (Wall-case 78, Second Egyptian
Room), and his =scarabs= (Table-case D, Fourth Egyptian Room).
[Sidenote: B.C. 612.]
=Nekau=, or =Necho=, maintained an army of Greeks, and two fleets, one
in the Mediterranean and one in the Red Sea. He recut and enlarged the
old canal which in the time of Seti I joined the Nile and the Red Sea,
and is said to have employed 120,000 men in the work. He led an army into
Syria, and fought with =Josiah=, king of Judah, who attempted to bar
his progress in the valley of Megiddo; Josiah was struck by an Egyptian
arrow which penetrated his disguise, and he died (2 Kings xxiii, 29 ff.;
2 Chron. xxxv, 22). Necho advanced towards the Euphrates, but was met
at Karkemish by Nebuchadnezzar II and his army, and in the battle which
followed he was defeated. Among the small objects inscribed with his name
are: A bronze =shrine= (Table-case H, Third Egyptian Room), a porcelain
=vase= (Wall-case 157, Fourth Egyptian Room), an =alabastron= (Wall-case
139, Fourth Egyptian Room), and a limestone =draughtsman= (Standard-case
C, Fourth Egyptian Room).
[Sidenote: B.C. 596.]
[Sidenote: B.C. 592.]
[Illustration: Head of a colossal statue of Psammetichus II, about B.C.
596.
[Southern Egyptian Gallery, Bay 23, No. 803.]]
The reign of =Psammetichus II=, the son of Necho, was short and
unimportant; but he appears to have made a raid into Nubia. He repaired
several of the large temples at Heliopolis, Memphis, Karnak, and
Elephantine. Among the monuments of his reign is a head from a colossal
=statue= of =the king=, found near the south end of the Suez Canal
(Bay 23, No. =803=). For small objects inscribed with his name see the
=scarabs= in Table-case D, and a portion of a =sistrum= in Wall-case
157, Fourth Egyptian Room. Under =Ḥāā-ȧb-Rā Uaḥ-ȧb-Rā=, the =Pharaoh
Ḥophra= of Jeremiah xliv, 30 and the =Apries= of the Greeks, Egypt
enjoyed a period of great prosperity, directly due to the encouragement
he gave to commerce, and to the business qualities of the Greeks who
had settled in Naukratis and elsewhere in Egypt. He made an expedition
into Syria. =Zedekiah=, king of Judah, counted upon his help to
repulse =Nebuchadnezzar II=; but failing to do so, Ḥophra incurred the
denunciations of the prophet Jeremiah: “And this shall be a sign to you,
saith the LORD, that I will punish you in this place, that ye may know
that my words shall surely stand against you for evil: Thus saith the
LORD: Behold, I will give Pharaoh-hophra king of Egypt into the hand
of his enemies, and into the hand of them that seek his life; as I gave
Zedekiah king of Judah into the hand of Nebuchadnezzar king of Babylon
his enemy, and that sought his life” (Jeremiah xliv, 29-30). Pharaoh
Ḥophra was dethroned by his own soldiers, who made their general =Ȧāḥmes=
(Amāsis II) king in his stead. Among monuments bearing his name are a
limestone =stele=, on which is sculptured the figure of the king (Bay 22,
No. =804=), and a portion of a statue of =Pefā-Net=, the king’s chief
physician (Central Saloon, No. =805=).
[Sidenote: B.C. 572.]
=Amāsis II= treated his former master with kindness, but, as Ḥophra
persisted in raiding the country, further fighting ensued. In the end,
Ḥophra was slain by his own soldiers on board his boat. During the reign
of Amāsis II Nebuchadnezzar II attempted to invade Egypt, with what
success is unknown. During this long reign of about 44 years the country
in general enjoyed peace and prosperity, and the quarries were re-opened
and many temples restored; remains of his building activity are visible
on the sites of all the great sanctuaries of Egypt. He was a generous
patron of the Greeks, and granted them lands and many privileges. Among
the monuments of his reign are: Two granite tablets for offerings, or
=altars= (Bay 16, No. =806=; Bay 17, No. =807=); a stele, dated in his
eighth year, recording the dedication of a building to Neith, goddess
of Saïs (Bay 24, No. =808=); a =weight= inscribed with his prenomen
(Wall-case 180, Fourth Egyptian Room), and handles of two =sistra=
(Wall-case 187, same room).
Amāsis II married Thent-kheta, by whom he became the father of
Psammetichus III. He was also the official husband of the famous
high-priestess of Ȧmen, =Ānkhnes-neferȧb-Rā=, the daughter of
Psammetichus II and the Lady =Takhauath=, and the adopted daughter
of Nit-Ȧqert (Nitokris), high priestess of Ȧmen.[39] The magnificent
=sarcophagus= in the Southern Egyptian Gallery was made for her (Bay
24, No. =811=). It is undoubtedly one of the finest monuments of the
XXVIth dynasty in the British Museum. (See =Plates XLIII=, =XLIV=).
The reliefs and figures are carefully executed, and the hieroglyphics
are well cut. In the Ptolemaïc Period this sarcophagus was used for a
royal scribe named Ȧmen-ḥetep, or Pi-Menth, his name being inserted in
the cartouches and the feminine suffixes being changed to masculine.
Ānkhnes-neferȧb-Rā built a chapel at Thebes, from which came slabs
Nos. =812=, =813= (Bay 24). Worthy of note also are two fine bronze
figures of =Harpokrates-Ȧmen= and =Menu=, which were dedicated to Queen
Ānkhnes-neferȧb-Rā by priests in her temple (see Table-case H, Third
Egyptian Room). Amāsis II had a daughter, =Ta-Khart-Ȧst= (for a portion
of a statue of her see Bay 24, No. =814=).
[Illustration: PLATE XLIII.
Queen Ānkhnes-neferȧb-Rā, daughter of Psammetichus II and Queen
Takhauath, wearing the head-dress of Isis-Hathor. From the cover of the
sarcophagus of the queen.
About B.C. 600.
[Southern Egyptian Gallery, Bay 24, No. 811.]]
[Illustration: PLATE XLIV.
The Sky-goddess Nut. From the inside of the sarcophagus of Queen
Ānkhnes-neferȧb-Rā.
[Southern Egyptian Gallery, Bay 24, No. 811.]]
[Illustration: PLATE XLV.
Kneeling statue of Uaḥ-ȧb-Rā, a prince, governor, and commander-in-chief,
about B.C. 600.
XXVIth dynasty.
[Southern Egyptian Gallery, Bay 21, No. 818.]]
The last king of this dynasty was =Psammetichus III=. During his short
reign, which lasted six months only, the Persians under their king
Cambyses invaded Egypt, and, having defeated the Egyptians at Pelusium,
marched on to Memphis and captured it. After a short time Cambyses put
Psammetichus to death, and =Egypt became a province=, or satrapy, of
=Persia=.
During the rule of the XXVIth dynasty over Egypt, it appears that several
native Nubian kings ruled the Northern Sûdân from Napata, the modern
Gebel Barkal. Among these were =Ȧspelta= and =Ḥeru-sa-ȧtef=, the former
of whom probably reigned about B.C. 625 and the latter about B.C. 580.
For casts of stelae recording the =Coronation of Ȧspelta= and the Annals
of =Ḥeru-sa-ȧtef=, see Bay 18, No. =815=, and Bay 20, No. =816=. A cast
of a stele inscribed with an edict against the =eaters of raw meat= is in
Bay 20, No. =817=.
Under the XXVIth dynasty a great =revival of art and learning= took
place, due partly to the settled condition of the country under a firm
government, and partly to the material prosperity which obtained at that
period. The painter and sculptor took for their models the reliefs and
statues of the Early Empire, and the funerary masons and scribes cut or
wrote on the stelae and tombs texts which were composed under the VIth
dynasty, or earlier. The monuments of the period are more often made
of dark limestone, dark green or grey schist, and basalt than granite,
which was so commonly used for coffins, statues, stelae, etc., under the
Middle Empire. These substances give to the large monuments of the =Saïte
Period= a sad and sometimes heavy effect. Among the many fine examples
of the sculpture of the period may be mentioned: The black basalt
kneeling statue of =Uaḥ-ȧb-Rā=, a prince and general of the army (see
=Plate XLV=; Bay 21, No. =818=); the portion of the kneeling figure of
=Khnem-ȧb-Rā-Men=, prefect of Saïs, holding a =shrine of Neith= (Bay 23,
No. =819=); the portion of a figure of =Ānkh-p-kharṭ=, a priest who had
ministered in the temple for eighty years (Bay 24, No. =820=); and the
=libation bowl= dedicated to the goddesses Mut and Hathor (Bay 22, Nos.
=821=, =822=). The casts of the =Cow= of Hathor and the =Hippopotamus=
of Smeṭsmeṭ are also very instructive (Bay 25, No. =823=; Bay 26, No.
=824=). Of the massive stone =sarcophagi= and coffins, Nos. =825-829=
are very fine important examples. On the two granite sarcophagi of
=Nes-Qeṭiu= (No. =825=) and =Ḥāp-men= (No. =826=) are cut the figures
of all the gods who were believed to protect the dead; but the others
(Nos. =827-29=) are plainer. The sepulchral stelae are very numerous;
interesting examples will be found in Bays 21, 22, etc.
Twenty-Seventh Dynasty. From Persia.
B.C. 527.
The rule of the Persians over Egypt lasted about one hundred and ten
years. =Cambyses=, having established himself as king, set out on an
expedition to the Sûdân. On his way thither he despatched an army of
50,000 men to the Oasis of Jupiter Ammon, now known as Sîwah, to secure
the submission of the tribes; but, after reaching Khârgah, these troops
were never more heard of. Cambyses continued his march into Nubia, where,
it seems, he came in touch with a native army somewhere near the Third
Cataract. According to the annals of =Nȧstasen=, king of Nubia, his boats
were captured on the river, and all his soldiers slain after a fierce
fight. Greek tradition states that Cambyses committed many sacrilegious
acts in Egypt; but the inscription of Utcha-ḥer-resenet, the chancellor
of Saïs, records that Cambyses cleared out the temple of Neith in that
city, restored its revenues, and reinstated its priests. This done he
went to the temple in person, and performed acts of worship, like the
Pharaohs of old. The money which he gave the chancellor enabled him “to
provide with a coffin the man who was too poor to buy one, and he took
care of the children.”
[Sidenote: B.C. 521.]
=Darius I, Hystaspes=, was a wise and enlightened king, and he tried to
understand the religion and customs of the Egyptians. He established a
=coinage=, encouraged trade, subscribed money for expenses incurred in
the discovery of a new =Apis Bull=, supported religious institutions, and
commissioned the chancellor Utcha-ḥer-resenet to found a school for the
training of scribes. He was tolerant; and built a temple to Ȧmen-Rā in
the Oasis of Al-Khârgah, on the walls of which is cut a remarkable hymn
to Ȧmen. He also completed the canal between the Nile and the Red Sea,
which Necho began, and so added greatly to the prosperity of the country.
In the latter part of his reign the Egyptians, led by =Khabbesha=,
revolted against the Persian rule with some success. Darius determined to
set out from Persia to put down the rebellion, but died before he could
do so. The triumph of Khabbesha was short-lived, for =Xerxes the Great=
marched against him, defeated his forces, and reduced the country to
servitude worse than before. Xerxes did nothing for the gods or people
of Egypt, and left few traces of his reign in the country. An =alabaster
vase= inscribed with his name in four languages, Egyptian, Persian,
Median and Babylonian, which was found at Halicarnassus, is exhibited in
the =Gold Room= in the British Museum. For fragments of other vases, on
which his name appears in Egyptian letters, within a cartouche, and with
the additions “Pharaoh, the Great,” as here given, see Wall-cases Nos. 28
and 29, in the Babylonian Room. A cast of a stele, dated in his fourth
year, with a bilingual inscription in Egyptian and Aramean, is exhibited
in the Semitic Room (Second Northern Gallery, Wall-case 29).
𓍹𓆼𓆷𓇌𓄿𓃭𓆷𓄿𓍺𓉐𓉻𓅮𓉻𓂝
[Sidenote: B.C. 486.]
[Sidenote: B.C. 466.]
In the reign of =Artaxerxes I= another revolt, headed by =Inarôs=, a
Libyan, who was assisted by the Athenians, broke out, and at the battle
of Papremis, the satrap of Egypt, =Akhaemenes=, was killed and his forces
defeated. Subsequently the Persians defeated the Egyptians, and =Inarôs=
was captured and taken to Persia, where a few years later he was impaled
and flayed alive.
[Sidenote: B.C. 424.]
=Darius II, Nothus=, repaired the temple of Ȧmen-Rā at Al-Khârgah,
and added his name to its walls. In his reign the Egyptians at length
succeeded in throwing off the Persian yoke. Their leader, =Amyrtaios=,
has been thought to be Ȧmen-ruṭ-meri-Ȧmen.
Twenty-Eighth Dynasty. From Saïs.
B.C. 420 (?).
According to the King List of Manetho the XXVIIIth dynasty consisted of
one king, who was named =Amyrtaios=; Julius Africanus and the Syncellus
state that he reigned six years, and make Saïs the seat of his rule.
At one time authorities identified Amyrtaios with the king =Ȧmen-ruṭ=,
whose name 𓊹𓄤𓍹𓇳𓄊𓌷𓏏𓇋𓏠𓈖𓍉𓈖𓍺𓎟𓇾𓇾𓍹𓇋𓏠𓈖𓌗𓇋𓏠𓈖𓌻𓍺 is found on a plank
from a coffin preserved at Berlin. The form of the prenomen, however,
proves that Ȧmen-ruṭ lived at a period anterior to Amyrtaios, and the
identification must, therefore, be abandoned.
Twenty-Ninth Dynasty. From Mendes.
B.C. 399.
Of the five kings of this dynasty only three appear to have left remains,
viz. =Naifaauruṭ= (Nepherites), =Haḳer= (Achoris), and =Psamut=; their
reigns were unimportant, their total length being only about twenty-one
years.
Thirtieth Dynasty. From Sebennytus.
B.C. 378.
[Sidenote: B.C. 378.]
=Nekht-Ḥeru-ḥebt=, the Nektanebês and Nektanebus I of classical writers,
succeeded in overthrowing the dynasty of Mendes, and made himself king of
all Egypt, which he ruled with success for a period of eighteen years. He
repaired several of the temples of Memphis and Thebes, and the temple of
Darius I at Al-Khârgah, and revived the custom of setting up obelisks. He
also founded the temple of Horus at Ḥebt, the modern Behbît-al-Ḥagârah.
During his prosperous reign more attention was given to the performance
of ceremonies connected with the dead, and, as a result, a considerable
number of statues, stelae, etc., which may be attributed to his reign
have come down to us.
[Illustration: PLATE XLVI.
Obelisk dedicated to Thoth by King Ḥeru-nekht-ḥebt, B.C. 378.
XXXth dynasty.
[Southern Egyptian Gallery, Bay 31, No. 919.]]
[Illustration: PLATE XLVII.
Scenes and texts from the Second Section of the Book of What is in the
Other World. From the sarcophagus of King Nekht-Ḥeru-ḥebt, B.C. 378.
[Southern Egyptian Gallery, Bay 25, No. 923.]]
Among his monuments worthy of special note are: =1.= A =pair= of
=obelisks=, inscribed with his names and titles, and dedicated to
“Thoth, the Twice Great,” before whose temple they were set up. They
were taken from a town in the Delta during the eighteenth century, and
stood for many years before one of the mosques of Cairo (see =Plate
XLVI=). (Bays 31, 32, Nos. =919=, =920=.) =2.= Portion of a statue of
Ȧmen-Rā(?), dedicated to the god by this king. (Bay 30, No. =921=.)
=3.= =Sarcophagus of Nectanebus I.= (See =Plate XLVII=.) This most
valuable and interesting object is one of the most remarkable monuments
of this king. The inside is decorated with figures of the gods, and on
the outside are cut the texts and illustrations of a series of sections
of the great funerary work entitled the =Book of what is in the Ṭuat=
(_i.e._, the Other World). The =Ṭuat= was a long narrow valley which ran
parallel with Egypt, and was neither above nor below this earth; a river
flowed through its whole length. It was entered on the left bank of the
Nile near Thebes, ran due north as far as Saïs, then curved to the east,
and finally terminated where the sun rose. This valley was divided into
ten sections, and at each end was a sort of ante-chamber or vestibule.
Each section was filled with its own peculiar beings, many of whom were
hostile to the dead who wished to pass through it in the Boat of the
Sun-god, which traversed it nightly. The god himself could only do this
by uttering words of power. The Book of what is in the Ṭuat was supposed
to contain these words of power; and copies of it were written on papyri,
or cut on sarcophagi, so that their possessors or occupants might be able
to recite them in case of need. The representations of the gods which
accompanied the texts enabled the dead to recognize the several beings of
the Other World when they met them, and to recite the appropriate words
of power. On the rounded =head= of the sarcophagus the First Section
of the Ṭuat is sculptured, and on the =foot= the Ninth Section; on the
=right= hand side are the Second and Sixth Sections, and on the =left=
are the Third and Eighth Sections (Bay 25, No. =923=). These Sections
refer to the kingdoms of the dead of Thebes, Abydos, and Saïs; the other
six Sections were probably sculptured on the cover, which was destroyed
in the eighteenth century; those relating to Memphis and Heliopolis are
omitted.
Nectanebus I was succeeded by his son =Tcheḥrȧ= (Teôs, or Tachos), in
whose reign the Persians led by =Artaxerxes II= made an attack upon
Egypt, but failed to conquer it.
[Sidenote: B.C. 358.]
Teôs was succeeded by his son =Nekht-neb-f=, or =Nectanebus II=, in
whose reign the Persians, under =Artaxerxes III=, once again obtained
possession of the country. The reign of Nectanebus II, who was the =last
native king= of Egypt, was on the whole peaceful and prosperous; he
repaired many temples, and his name is found on buildings in all the
great sanctuaries from Philae to Sebennytus in the Delta. The statues and
stelae of the period are well-cut, and the work is tasteful and delicate.
Among them may be mentioned: A granite =statue= of Nectanebus II (Bay 29,
No. =924=); the two =intercolumnar slabs= on which are representations of
the king kneeling and making an offering (Bay 27, No. =926=; Bay 28, No.
=927=); and a small =gilded door= from the model of a shrine, on which
the king is represented kneeling and making an offering (Table-case C,
Fourth Egyptian Room).
The Persians, having succeeded in obtaining the supreme power once again,
held it for a period of about eight years; but their rule was hateful to
the Egyptians, and when =Alexander the Great= (born B.C. 356, died 324),
who had defeated Darius III at the Battle of Issus, =B.C. 332=, arrived
at Memphis, he was welcomed as the saviour of the country. He marched to
the Oasis of Sîwah (Jupiter Ammon) and entered the temple of Ȧmen-Rā, and
worshipped the god, who acknowledged him to be his son and therefore the
rightful king of Egypt. Soon after, in B.C. 331, Alexander founded the
city of Alexandria.
In the scramble for the provinces of Alexander’s great Empire which took
place at his death, Egypt fell to the share of one of his generals,
Ptolemy Lagus, who administered the country in the name of Alexander’s
sons, =Philip Arrhidaeus= and =Alexander II= of Egypt, the former of
whom never set foot in the country; the latter was brought thither as
a child of six years, and was murdered when he was thirteen years old
(B.C. 311); but in spite of these facts Ptolemy Lagus caused buildings
to be erected in their names, and ruled the country as their loyal
servant. To the period B.C. 332-306 belong the portion of a =clepsydra=
inscribed with the name of =Alexander the Great= (Bay 29, No. =948=); the
portion of a =clepsydra= inscribed with the name of =Philip Arrhidaeus=
(Bay 29, No. =949=); and the =papyrus of Nes-Ȧmsu=, containing the Book
of Overthrowing Āpep, which is dated in the twelfth year of “Pharaoh
Alexander, the son of Alexander,” _i.e._, Alexander II (No. =10,188=).
In the seventh year of his reign Alexander II restored to the temples of
the city of Pe-Ṭep (Buto) the property which had been wrested from it by
Xerxes the Great: a cast of the stele which commemorates this fact will
be found in Bay 28, No. =950=.
CHAPTER XIII.
THE PTOLEMAÏC PERIOD.
Under the capable rule of the earlier Ptolemies, Egypt became prosperous
and powerful, and in the reign of Philadelphus she was the wealthiest
country in the world. Though they and their court were Greeks and spoke
Greek, the language of the priesthood and people was Egyptian, and the
native religion of the country remained practically unchanged. As time
went on, however, Greek became more and more the official language, and
Egyptian was only used officially for religious purposes. The Ptolemies
worshipped the Egyptian gods, offered up sacrifices to them, and rebuilt
and endowed many of their temples, _e.g._, at Denderah, Edfû, Esna,
Philae, Dakkah, etc. They adopted Egyptian names and titles, married
their sisters and nieces, and in every way they adopted the habits of
Egyptian Pharaohs; many were crowned with all the ancient rites and
ceremonies at Memphis. They did not, however, permit the priests to
interfere in the government of the country, which was administered on
Greek lines, and though at times their power was skilfully disguised,
it was nevertheless ubiquitous and effective. The revenues which they
drew from Egypt were very large, and no other monarchs in the world at
that time possessed such vast wealth as the Ptolemies. This was due to
the encouragement which they gave to commercial enterprises of every
kind, and to the freedom to trade which was enjoyed by the Jews, who had
settled in large numbers not only in Alexandria, but also in the rich
provinces of the Fayyûm, and in the Thebaïd, and in Syene.
=Ptolemy I, Soter I, B.C. 304=, founded the =Alexandrian Library= and
=Museum=, settled a number of Jews in Alexandria, and introduced the
worship of the god Hades, who was henceforth known in Egypt as =Serapis=,
_i.e._, Ȧsȧr-Ḥāpi, or Osiris-Apis. (See Wall-cases 176-181, Fourth
Egyptian Room.) For a relief and an inscription from his buildings at
Terenouthis, see Bay 25, Nos. =951=, =952=.
[Illustration: PLATE XLVIII.
Relief with figures of Ptolemy II, Philadelphus, and Queen Arsinoë, about
B.C. 260.
[Southern Egyptian Gallery, Bay 25, No. 953.]]
=Ptolemy II, Philadelphus, B.C. 287 or 286=, founded the cities of
Berenice Troglodytica, on the Red Sea, and Arsinoë in the Fayyûm, and
built the famous =Pharos=, or lighthouse, at Alexandria, one of the seven
wonders of the world. In his reign the priest =Manetho= wrote a History
of Egypt, of which only the King List is extant, and the famous Greek
version of the Old Testament, known as the =Septuagint=, was compiled.
He added largely to the Alexandrian Library, which is said at that time
to have contained 400,000 works. For stelae, sculptured with reliefs in
which Ptolemy II and Queen =Arsinoë= are represented making offerings to
the gods, see Bay 25, Nos. =953-955= (see =Plate XLVIII=); a portion of a
royal edict is in Bay 28, No. =956=.
[Illustration: Stele sculptured with a scene representing Ptolemy II,
Philadelphus, making offerings to Ȧmsu, or Menu, Uatchet, etc., about
B.C. 260.
[Southern Egyptian Gallery, Bay 25, No. 954.]]
=Ptolemy III, Euergetes I, B.C. 246=, conquered the greater portion of
Western Asia. He was a patron of the arts and learning, and he repaired
and rebuilt many of the ancient temples. To commemorate his victories and
the benefits which he conferred on Egypt, the priesthood assembled at
Canopus in the ninth year of his reign, and passed a Decree conferring
special honours on the king and his queen =Berenice=. It was ordered
that the Decree be cut in the Greek and Egyptian languages on stelae
to be set up in the most prominent places in temples of the first,
second, and third class throughout Egypt, in order that all men might
read of the king’s bounty. The Egyptian version was inscribed in two
kinds of writing, viz., in hieroglyphics and in demotic. The Decree also
ordered that one day be added to the calendar every fourth year, thus
anticipating the =leap-year= of modern times. For a cast of the =Decree
of Canopus= see Bay 28, No. =957=. Ptolemy III began to build the temple
of =Edfû= (see =Plate XLIX=), B.C. 237, which was finished by Ptolemy XI,
B.C. 57. Objects inscribed with his name are not common. (For a =gold
ring= which was made in his reign see Table-case J, Fourth Egyptian Room.)
=Ptolemy IV, Philopator I, B.C. 222 or 221=, added a hall to the temple
which the Nubian king, =Ergamenes=, built at Dakkah, and dedicated a
temple to Homer. He defeated Antiochus the Great at the Battle of Raphia,
but did nothing further to break his power. He organized =elephant hunts=
in the Sûdân, and transported the animals by sea to Egypt for military
purposes; a Greek inscription set up by Alexandros, general of the
elephant hunts of Ptolemy IV, is in Bay 26, No. =958=.
[Illustration: PLATE XLIX.
View of the Temple of Edfû, taken from the top of the pylon. The temple
was begun B.C. 237 and finished B.C. 57, and its construction occupied
180 years, 3 months, and 14 days.]
[Illustration: PLATE L.
Granite monolithic shrine dedicated to the goddess Isis of Philae by
Ptolemy IX (?), Euergetes II, B.C. 147-117.
[Southern Egyptian Gallery, Bay 30, No. 962.]]
=Ptolemy V, Epiphanes, B.C. 205=, was a great benefactor of the temples
of Egypt; and to mark their gratitude to him the priests of all Egypt
met in solemn assembly at Memphis in the ninth year of his reign, and
passed a Decree ordering that increased honours be paid to the king and
his ancestors, that a statue of him be set up in each of the temples, and
that a copy of the Decree, inscribed upon a stone stele, in hieroglyphic,
demotic and Greek writing, be likewise set up in each temple of the
first, second, and third class throughout Egypt. This Decree was duly
carried out, for portions of three or four stelae, inscribed with the
text of it, have been discovered. Most important of all is the stele
which was found by M. Boussard in 1798, which, because it was dug up
near Rosetta, is commonly known as the =Rosetta Stone= (see No. =960=,
Southern Egyptian Gallery). A special interest attaches to this monument,
for from it =Thomas Young=, in 1816-1818, deduced the values of several
letters of the Egyptian alphabet, and succeeded in reading the name of
=Ptolemy=. Next with the help of this text and of an obelisk from Philae,
the Frenchman =Champollion= read the name Cleopatra, and formulated a
correct system of Egyptian decipherment. (For details see page 41 ff.)
During the reign of Ptolemy V, the Egyptians invoked the protection of
Rome.
[Illustration: Head of a statue of one of the Ptolemies, about B.C. 300.
[Southern Egyptian Gallery, Bay 27, No. 947.]]
=Ptolemy VI, Eupator=, died the year he became king. During the reign of
=Ptolemy VII, Philometor= (B.C. 173), the Jews were permitted to build
a temple at Onion, Onias being high-priest. (For a stele on which are
sculptured figures of Ptolemy VII and the two Queens Cleopatra, see Bay
27, No. =961=.) =Ptolemy VIII= was murdered. =Ptolemy IX, Euergetes II,
B.C. 147-117=, finished the temple of Edfû, and repaired many temples
both in Egypt and Nubia. From one of these came the fine monolithic
=granite shrine= (see =Plate L=) in which a sacred bird or animal was
kept (Bay 30, No. =962=). It was found lying on its side among the ruins
of a Coptic church on the Island of Philae; it had been utilized by the
builders of the church as the base of a Christian altar. =Ptolemy X,
B.C. 117=, conferred great benefits on the temples of the First Cataract
(see Bay 29, No. =963=); =Ptolemy XI= and =Ptolemy XII= were killed in
B.C. 87 and 81 respectively; =Ptolemy XIII, B.C. 80-51=, began to build
the =temples of Denderah and Esna=; =Ptolemy XIV, B.C. 51=, and his
sister =Cleopatra= were left by their father, Ptolemy XIII, under the
guardianship of the Roman Senate, and =Pompey= was made their guardian.
After the battle of Pharsalia, Pompey fled to Egypt, and was murdered at
the instance of Ptolemy XIV, who had banished his wife Cleopatra. In B.C.
48, Julius Caesar landed in Egypt, defeated Ptolemy, who was drowned, and
reinstated Cleopatra. =Ptolemy XV= was appointed co-regent; but he was
murdered by Cleopatra’s orders in B.C. 45, and =Ptolemy XVI, Caesarion=,
son of Julius Caesar and Cleopatra, was named co-regent in his stead.
After the defeat of =Antony= by Octavianus and the death of Antony and
Cleopatra, =Egypt became a Roman Province, B.C. 30=.
The Egyptian antiquities of the Ptolemaïc Period in the British Museum
consist chiefly of =Stelae= inscribed with funerary texts; they are
comparatively small in size, and are painted in bright colours. The
reliefs, in which the figures of the gods are represented, are delicately
cut, and the hieroglyphics have the slender form which is one of the
chief characteristics of the inscriptions of the period. The texts often
contain the ages of the deceased persons, and details concerning the
length of time occupied in the process of mummification, which are wholly
wanting in the funerary monuments of an earlier period. Among the gods
mentioned on the stelae is =Serapis=, who represents a fusion of the old
Egyptian gods, Osiris and Apis. (For figures of this god in terra-cotta
see Table-case M in the Fourth Egyptian Room.) The =stone coffins= of
the period are in the form of a mummy, and are usually carefully cut and
finished. We have already seen that two important edicts of the priests
of Memphis and Canopus were cut on stelae in two forms of Egyptian
writing, viz., hieroglyphic and demotic, and in Greek; there are also
several examples of funerary monuments in the British Museum in which the
hieroglyphic text is followed by a rendering in demotic and Greek. In
the case of small objects, _e.g._, mummy labels, the inscriptions are in
demotic and Greek only.
[Illustration: Limestone window with mullions in the form of pillars with
Hathor-headed capitals. From the temple at Denderah.
Ptolemaïc Period.
[Southern Egyptian Gallery, Bay 25, No. 972.]]
Among the noteworthy monuments of this period are: A statue of the
goddess Isis, holding before her a figure of Osiris, whom she
protects with her wings, dedicated to the goddess by one =Shashanq=
(Bay 28, No. =964=); massive green =granite beetle=, symbol of
Kheperȧ, the self-produced god, the creator of the universe, and the
type of resurrection (Central Saloon, No. =965=); stone =serpent=,
with the bust of a woman (Bay 32, No. =966=); green =basalt coffin=
of the lady =Ānkhet= (Bay 29, No. =967=) and the =limestone coffin=
of =Ḥes-Peṭān-Ȧst= (Bay 26, No. =968=); limestone =window= from the
clerestory of the temple of Denderah (Bay 25, No. =972=); and a marble
=sun-dial= from Alexandria (Bay 29, No. =976=). An interesting group
of stelae, with demotic inscriptions, is exhibited in Bay 27 (Nos.
=983-990=); and in Bay 29 (No. =994=) is the stele of =Euonymos=, with an
inscription in Greek and demotic. Among the stelae which give the ages
of deceased persons may be noted those of =Ḥer-ȧbu=, a priest of king
Saḥu-Rā (?), who lived fifty years, seven months, and five days (Bay 30,
No. =995=); =Tashermut=, a priestess who died aged ninety-seven years
(Bay 27, No. =996=); and =Berenice= (?) who died aged sixty-four years,
eight months, and twenty-six days (Bay 29, No. =998=).
Of all the stelae of this period the most interesting is that of the
lady =That-I-em-ḥetep=, who belonged to a family that reckoned among
its members several princes of Memphis and high priests of Ptaḥ (Bay
29, No. =1027=). She was born in the ninth year of the reign of Ptolemy
XIII, about B.C. 71, and when fourteen years old she was married to her
half-brother, the priest =P-shere-en-Ptaḥ= (see his stele in Bay 27, No.
=1026=). During the first twelve years of her married life she gave birth
to three daughters, but no son, which caused her husband great grief.
She and her husband prayed to the god I-em-ḥetep, the son of Ptaḥ, for a
son, and the god, appearing to P-shere-en-Ptaḥ in a dream, promised to
grant his prayer if he carried out certain works in connexion with the
temple. When the priest awoke he caused the works to be taken in hand,
and soon after they were completed his wife gave birth to a son who was
named I-em-ḥetep, and surnamed Peṭā-Bast (see his stele in Bay 27, No.
=1030=). Four years afterwards That-I-em-ḥetep died, and was buried with
due ceremony by her husband, whom she addresses thus: “O my brother, my
husband, my friend, the Ur-kherp-ḥem (_i.e._, high priest of Memphis),
cease not to drink, to eat, to be drunken, and to marry wives, and to
enjoy thyself, and to follow the desire of thy heart by day and by night;
and let not sorrow or sadness find a place in thy heart during all the
years which thou shalt live upon earth. Ȧmenti (_i.e._, the land of the
dead) is the land of stupor and darkness, and a place of oppression for
those who are therein. The august ones sleep in their mummied forms; they
cannot awake to see their brethren, they cannot look upon their fathers
and mothers, and they are unmindful of wives and children. The living
water which the earth hath for its dwellers is stagnant water for me....
I no longer know where I am, now that I have arrived in this valley [of
the dead]. Would that I had water to drink from a running stream, and one
to say to me, ‘Remove not thy pitcher from the stream’! O that my face
were turned towards the north wind on the river bank that the coolness
thereof might quiet the anguish which is in my heart!
“He whose name is Universal Death calleth everyone to him; and they come
unto him with quaking hearts, and they are terrified through their fear
of him. With him is no distinction made between gods and men, and the
great are even as the little in his sight. He showeth no favour to those
who long for him; for he carrieth away the babe from his mother, as well
as the aged man. As he goeth about on his way, all men fear him, and,
though all make supplication before him, he turneth not his face towards
them. Entreaty reacheth not unto him, for he will not hearken unto him
that maketh supplication, and him who presenteth unto him offerings and
funerary, he will not regard.”
The ideas expressed in the above extract have their origin in the
materialism which found its way into Egypt under the rule of the
Ptolemies.
THE ROMAN PERIOD.
[Illustration: The building at Philae commonly known as “Pharaoh’s Bed.”
Roman Period.]
Egypt, having become a province of the Roman Empire on the death of
Cleopatra, B.C. 30, was forthwith placed under the rule of a Prefect, and
administered like any other Roman Province. Under the strict but just
rule of her new masters Egypt prospered, for trade flourished, and life
and property were, on the whole, well protected by the laws of Rome.
Reference has already been made (see page 255) to the Nubian kingdom
founded by Piānkhi, who made Napata his capital; it must also be noted
that at the same period, between B.C. 500 and the end of the Ptolemaïc
rule, a second Nubian kingdom was founded by some unknown Sûdânî chief
on the Island of Meroë, with a capital at Meroë, on the Nile, about
50 miles south of its junction with the Atbara. When the Romans began
to rule over Egypt the =Meroïtic Kingdom= was in a flourishing state,
and the authority of its sovereign, who appears to have been =Queen
Ȧmenṭārit=[40] (having also the title =Candace=, which was common to all
the Queens of Meroë), probably extended northwards as far as the First
Cataract. In B.C. 29 Candace made a treaty with =Cornelius Gallus=, the
first prefect of Egypt; but, five years later, when =Ælius Gallus= was
prefect, she invaded Egyptian territory and slew the Roman garrisons of
Philae and Syene. In revenge the Romans invaded Nubia and marched to
Napata, which they sacked and burned; and Candace was forced to submit.
From that time onward little is heard of the Kingdom of Meroë; but the
pyramids which still stand near Meroë prove that the Nubians observed
the old Egyptian customs in connexion with the burial of their dead in
chambers under the ground. They offered sacrifices to Osiris, Isis,
Nephthys, Anubis, and other gods of the cycle of Osiris, and recited the
ancient formulas, which are also written in hieroglyphics on the walls
of the funerary chapels; and in some instances they reproduced on the
walls whole scenes, _e.g._, the Weighing of the Heart, and the Pylons
of the Other World, from Ptolemaïc copies of the Book of the Dead, as
for example, on the sandstone =relief from a pyramid chapel at Meroë=
which is exhibited in Bay 31, No. =1049=. On the right =Queen Candace=
is seated, her consort by her side, holding symbols of sovereignty, her
feet resting on representatives of conquered tribes. Immediately in
front of the large figure of the queen we see her pouring out libations
to Osiris, and round about her are vases of wine, beer, unguents, bulls
for sacrifice, etc., for the funerary feast. In her company are priests,
officials, relatives, and others, who bear offerings, palm branches, etc.
This relief was originally coloured red. Also may be mentioned the two
=altars= with =Meroïtic Inscriptions= exhibited in Bay 30, Nos. =1050=,
=1051=. The Meroïtic character has not yet been deciphered.
[Illustration: PLATE LI.
Tablet recording the restoration of the temple of Mut by the Emperor
Tiberius Caesar, about A.D. 20.
[Southern Egyptian Gallery, Bay 27, No. 1052.]]
[Illustration: PLATE LII.
Tablet recording the setting up of a statue to the goddess Mut, and the
restoration of certain buildings by the Emperor Tiberius Caesar, about
A.D. 20.
[Southern Egyptian Gallery, Bay 29, No. 1053.]]
Nearly all the Roman emperors from Tiberius (A.D. 14) to Decius (A.D.
249) adopted Egyptian names and titles, and caused their names to be
written within cartouches like those of the Pharaohs. The stele in Bay
27 (No. =1052=) states that =Tiberius= rebuilt portions of the temple of
Mut at Thebes (see =Plate LI=); and another stele (Bay 29, No. =1053=)
refers to the setting up by him of a statue of the goddess Mut, and the
re-endowment of the portion of the temple wherein it stood (see =Plate
LII=). In the reign of =Nero= (A.D. 54-69) two centurions sent into the
Sûdân to report on the general condition of the country reached the
marshes near Shâmbî, about 700 miles south of Kharṭûm. Tradition asserts
that =Christianity= was preached in Alexandria towards the close of
his reign, and that =St. Mark= arrived in that city, A.D. 69. To this
period belongs stele No. =1057= (Bay 32), which was set up to mark the
gratitude of the Egyptians to Nero for appointing F. Claudius Balbillus,
prefect of Egypt. =Hadrian= visited Egypt twice, and founded the city
of Antinoopolis in memory of his friend Antinous who was drowned in
the Nile; when at Thebes he went with the Empress Sabina to view the
=Colossi= (see =Plate XXXIII=). =Marcus Aurelius= (A.D. 161-180) was a
just ruler and favoured Christianity in Egypt; in his reign the walls
which surrounded the Sphinx at Gîzah were repaired (see stele, No.
=1058=, Bay 32). =Septimius Severus= (A.D. 196) issued an edict against
the Christians in Egypt, and his successor, =Caracalla= (A.D. 211),
encouraged the pagan Egyptians and favoured their religion. =Decius=
(A.D. 249) made a systematic attempt to destroy the Christians, and every
person was called upon to offer sacrifice to the gods, or suffer death.
In the reign of =Diocletian= (A.D. 284), the =Blemmyes=, a confederation
of tribes who lived in the Eastern Sûdân, became so powerful that they
compelled the Roman garrisons to withdraw from the =Dodekaschoinos=,[41]
and the emperor was obliged to hire the =Nobadae=, or tribes of the
Western Desert, to keep them in check. He also agreed to pay the Blemmyes
a fixed annual sum to refrain from raiding Roman territory in Egypt,
and built a temple at Elephantine wherein representatives of all the
peoples concerned might swear to observe the covenant in the presence
of their respective gods. Diocletian in fact abandoned the Sûdân. In
304 he issued a savage =edict against the Christians= in Egypt, and
the persecution which followed it was marked with ferocious cruelty.
Many thousands of Egyptians fled to the desert monasteries to avoid
conscription, and embraced Christianity. From one of his buildings on
the Island of Philae comes the stone bearing the names of Diocletian and
=Constantine= (A.D. 324) (No. =1059=, Bay 26).
In 378 =Theodosius the Great= proclaimed Christianity the religion of
his Empire, and many temples in Lower Egypt were turned at once into
churches; but the ancient Egyptian gods were worshipped as usual in
Upper Egypt. =Marcianus= (A.D. 450-457) invaded Nubia and punished the
Blemmyes and Nobadae for raiding Roman territory; they paid a huge fine,
gave hostages for their future good behaviour, and made an agreement to
keep the peace for one hundred years. In return they stipulated that
they should be allowed to make pilgrimages annually to Philae, and to
borrow the statue of Isis from time to time, so that they might take it
about the country, and give the people the opportunity of invoking the
protection and blessing of the goddess. In the first half of the sixth
century the Nubians =embraced Christianity=, and =Silko=, king of the
Nobadae, founded a kingdom having its capital at Dongola. During the
reign of =Justinian= (A.D. 527-565) the hundred years’ truce came to an
end, and the Blemmyes and Nobadae again began to give trouble. Justinian,
believing that the cause of the revolt was the annual pilgrimage to
Philae, sent his officer Narses thither, with strict orders to close
the temples of Isis. Narses threw the priests of Isis into prison,
confiscated the revenues of the goddess, and carried off the statues of
the gods of Philae to Constantinople.
In the reign of =Heraclius= the Persians, under Chosroës, invaded Egypt
(A.D. 619), which they held for ten years. Owing to the desertion from
the Persians of the Arab tribes, who had now attached themselves to the
victorious troops of =Muḥammad the Prophet= (born at Mekkah, Aug. 20,
A.D. 570, died in June, 632), Heraclius was able to attack the Persians,
in Syria, and defeating them became master of Egypt once more. In =640=
=ʿAmr Ibn al-Âṣî=, the general of the Khalîfa Omar, conquered Egypt, and
thus the country became a province of the newly-founded Arab Empire.
During the rule of the Romans, which lasted from B.C. 30 to A.D. 640, the
Greek language entirely superseded Egyptian for official purposes, and
it was also usually employed in the funerary inscriptions. Interesting
examples are the stele of =Politta=, inscribed with a metrical text (Bay
26, No. =1083=), and the stele of =Artemidorus= (Bay 26, No. =1084=).
On the =pillar altar= (Bay 31, No. =1086=) is a dedication in Greek to
the god Serapis of the city of Canopus; and on the square sandstone slab
(Bay 26, No. =1087=) is a very interesting but difficult text recording
the cleansing and restoration of some public building near the town of
Kom Ombo in Upper Egypt, whilst Gabriel was Duke of the Thebaïd. Other
interesting inscriptions in Greek are found in =ostraka=, or potsherds,
many of which are dated in the reigns of Claudius, Nero, Vespasian,
Trajan, Antoninus, Sabinus, Pertinax, etc., will be found exhibited in
Table-case C in the Third Egyptian Room. During the early centuries of
Roman rule the Egyptians continued to mummify their dead, and to bury
them with the ancient rites and ceremonies. The use of the funerary
stele or tablet continued down to the fourth century A.D.; but the gods
represented on them appeared in different forms, and Greek or demotic
took the place of hieroglyphics. In the region about Thebes and to the
south of that city the cult of Osiris and Isis continued until about A.D.
560, and a simple system of mummification was practised in connexion with
the worship of the dead.
[Illustration: Sepulchral tablet sculptured with figures of doves,
pillars, leaf patterns, etc.
[Southern Egyptian Gallery, Bay 30, No. 1156.]]
The most important event during the rule of the Romans was the
=introduction of Christianity by St. Mark= the Apostle, who, according
to tradition, preached the Gospel in Alexandria about A.D. 69. The
knowledge of the new religion spread rapidly, and converts multiplied
and, though no direct proof is forthcoming at present, there is reason
to think that before the middle of the second century an account of the
life of Christ and His words and works existed in the Egyptian tongue.
Men who had embraced Christianity retired into the desert to lead a life
of austerity and contemplation, among whom may be mentioned =Frontonius=,
who collected seventy disciples, and withdrew to the Nitrian Desert
between A.D. 138 and 161, and =Paul the Anchorite=, who died about A.D.
250, aged 113 years. The life and teaching of =Anthony=, born 250, died
355, induced thousands to become monks. =Pachomius=, in 320, systematized
monasticism, but he required the recluses to work for their living whilst
they cultivated spiritual excellences. Women as well as men flocked to
the desert, and =nunneries= existed in many places in Egypt. The number
of such recluses was great; at Nitria alone there were 5,000 monks,
and, in addition, 600 lived solitary lives in the neighbouring desert.
At Oxyrhynchus there were 10,000 monks, and the bishop had charge of
20,000 nuns. In the monasteries of Nitria and Panopolis, and elsewhere,
the Holy Scriptures were translated from Greek into Egyptian (_i.e._,
=Coptic=, see pages 35-39) and Syriac, and other Oriental languages;
and copies of them were carried by monks and fugitive Christians into
Nubia, and even into remote Abyssinia, by way of the Blue Nile. In the
Oases of the Western Desert were numbers of Christians in the fourth and
fifth centuries; wherever the monk went he took Christianity with him.
Still, in spite of the spread of the new religion, the beliefs which
the Egyptians had received from their pagan ancestors also flourished
in Egypt for centuries after the preaching of St. Mark, and people of
all classes clung to their amulets, and words of power, and magical
ceremonies, even after they had embraced Christianity. For a very long
time the =Cross= was regarded as an amulet possessing the greatest
magical power possible, and the =Name= of Christ was held to be the
greatest of all words of power.
[Illustration: Sepulchral tablet of Plêïnôs, a “reader.”
[Southern Egyptian Gallery, Bay 32, No. 1145.]]
[Illustration: Sepulchral tablet of David, an Egyptian Christian.
[Southern Egyptian Gallery, Bay 30, No. 1160.]]
The principal doctrine of the Egyptian Christians, or =Copts=, is that
God the Father and Christ are of =one and the Same nature=; Arius held
that God and Christ are only =similar in nature=, and was declared a
heretic. The Copts are called =Monophysites=, because they believed,
and still believe, that Christ is of one nature only, and =Jacobites=
because their views as to the nature of Christ are identical with those
of one Jacob, a famous preacher of the Monophysite doctrine. The head
of the Coptic Church is the =Patriarch=, who is chosen from among the
monks of the Monastery of St. Anthony in the Red Sea Desert. The Copts
attach great importance to =Baptism=, they face the East when praying,
and they pray seven times a day. They make use of Confession, and keep
five Fasts and seven Festivals. The Copts were persecuted severely in
the reigns of Hadrian, Decius, Diocletian, and Julian the Apostate (A.D.
361), but the cruellest of the persecutions of the Roman emperors was
that of Diocletian in 304. The Copts commemorated the sufferings of their
community on this occasion by making the =Era of the Martyrs=, by which
they date their documents, begin with the day of Diocletian’s accession
to the throne, _i.e._, =August 29th, A.D. 284=. In the reign of Justinian
the Copts split up into two great parties, _i.e._, the =Melkites=, or
Royalists, which included all those who were in the service of the
Government, and the =Jacobites=, or ordinary inhabitants of the country;
henceforward each party chose its own Patriarch. The dissensions between
them materially aided the Conquest of Egypt by the Arabs.
Side by side with Christianity there also sprang up in Egypt, under Roman
rule, a number of sects to which the title “Gnostic” has been given.
They derived many of their views and beliefs from the religion of the
ancient Egyptians, and they admitted into their system many of the old
gods, _e.g._, Khnemu, Ptaḥ, Rā, Ȧmen, Thoth, Osiris, etc. The founders
of =Gnosticism=, a word derived from the Greek _gnosis_, “knowledge,”
claimed to possess a =superiority of knowledge= in respect of things
divine and celestial, and they regarded the knowledge of God as the
truest perfection of knowledge. The characteristic god of the Gnostics
was =Abrasax=, or =Abraxas=, and he represented the ONE who embraced ALL
within himself. They attributed magical properties to stones, which, when
cut into certain forms, and inscribed with legends, or mystic names,
words, and letters, afforded, they thought, protection against moral
and physical evil. An unusually fine collection of =Gnostic Gems= and
=Amulets= is exhibited in Table-case N, in the Fourth Egyptian Room: No.
=1= speaks of the “Father of the World, the God in Three Forms”; No. =18=
shows us the lion-headed serpent =Knoumis= and the mystic symbol [symbol];
No. =25= makes the Osiris-Christ to be Jah of the Hebrews, and also Alpha
and Omega; Nos. =36=, =37=, and =44= have figures of =Abraxas= cut upon
them; No. =87= mentions Solomon’s Seal, No. =110=, the six Archangels;
and of peculiar interest are No. =231=, engraved with a representation of
the =Crucifixion=, and No =469=, engraved with a representation of the
=Birth of Christ=.
THE ARAB PERIOD.
A.D. 640-1517.
As the Arabs were materially assisted in their conquest of Egypt by the
Copts, the new masters of the country treated the latter with great
consideration for about 100 years; but, from A.D. 750 onwards, they
persecuted their Christian subjects at intervals with great severity.
The non-Christian inhabitants of the country embraced =Islâm=, or
the doctrine of Muḥammad the Prophet, and, with the religion of the
Muslims, the knowledge of the Arabic language spread throughout Egypt.
It gradually superseded Egyptian, or Coptic, and about the end of the
twelfth century it became the common language of the country, Coptic
ceasing to be spoken except in monasteries and remote villages. In 642
the Arabs, under ʿAbd-Allah bin Sa’ad, occupied the Egyptian Sûdân, and
ten years later they marched to Dongola, destroyed the church and the
town, and levied an annual tribute, or =Baḳṭ=, consisting of 360 or 365
men upon the Nubians, which was paid with more or less regularity for
nearly 500 years. On several occasions the Arabs invited the Christians
of Nubia to embrace Islâm, but the latter steadily rejected the offer,
paid their tribute, and continued to worship God according to the
teachings of their Jacobite priests, who were appointed to their office
by the Patriarch of Alexandria. Many hundreds of churches were built in
the Sûdân between A.D. 540, when the Christian religion was established
by Silko, king of the Nobadae, and 1450, when the Christian kingdom
of Alwa, on the Blue Nile, was destroyed. During the greater part of
these 900 years the Liturgy was recited in Greek, and the services
were conducted after the manner laid down by the spiritual authorities
in Alexandria. Certain Books of the Bible and various Offices were
translated into =Nûbî=, the language of the country; but of these few
remains are extant.
[Illustration: PLATE LIII.
Sepulchral tablet set up in memory of Apa Paḥomo, the head of a monastic
settlement. On the right is a figure of Saint Victor, and on the left a
figure of Saint Apakene.
VIIth to Xth century, A.D.
[Southern Egyptian Gallery, Bay 30, No. 1103.]]
In Egypt the Copts founded and maintained many monasteries, and built
many churches; and from these come two remarkable series of monuments,
inscribed in Greek and Coptic, which are exhibited in Bays =28=, =30=,
and =32= of the Southern Egyptian Gallery. The greater number of them
belong to the period between 600 and 1000 A.D., and among them may be
noted:—The stele of =Isos=(?), inscribed in Greek with a prayer to
the “God of Spirits” (Bay 26, No. =1094=); the stele of =Paḥomo= (see
=Plate LIII=), the father of a monastic settlement, with figures of the
military saints =Apakene= and =Victor= (Bay 30, No. =1103=); the =apse=
from the shrine of a saint, on which are sculptured vine branches, with
doves seated on them, and figures of flowers, shells, fish, etc.: a
very interesting object (Bay 32, No. =1104=); the stele of =John the
Deacon=, inscribed with a =lament= on the bitterness of death (Bay
30, No. =1105=); an =altar slab= from a church (Bay 32, No. =1106=);
three stelae, inscribed with =invocations= to saints (Bays 30, 32, Nos.
=1107-1109=); =apse= from a shrine of a saint from a church at Philae
(Bay 30, No. =1113=); and a group of stelae commemorating the holy women
=Hêlenê=, daughter of Peter, deacon and steward of the Church of St.
John, in Esna, in Upper Egypt (Bay 30, No. 1115), =Sara=, =Rachel=,
=Teucharis=, =Troïs=, and =Rebecca= (Bay 32, Nos. =1116-1120=). Many of
the sepulchral stelae are richly sculptured with pediments of shrines,
pillars with elaborate carvings, figures of doves, and everywhere are
prominent the cross, which is assumed to be identical with the _ānkh_
𓋹, the old Egyptian symbol of “life,” and the =crown=. On several of
them also are seen Alpha and Omega, Α Ω. The most elaborately decorated
stele is that which was set up for the child =Mary= in the old church
at Ṣûhâḳ. The design is good, the cutting excellent, and it is one
of the finest examples extant of this class of monument (Bay 32, No.
=1123=).[42] A very interesting group of =Coptic documents=, consisting
of affidavits, letters, invoices, contracts, extracts from the Scriptures
and from liturgies, hymns, etc., is exhibited in Table-case M in the
Fourth Egyptian Room. In division 4 of the same case is a good collection
of =Coptic crosses=, pendants with figures of St. George, etc., from
Panopolis. Several very fine examples of =linenwork= from Coptic graves
and churches will be found in Table-cases E and J in the Third Egyptian
Room, and a handsome =bier cloth= in Wall-cases 70 and 71, in the Second
Egyptian Room.
[Illustration: Sepulchral tablet of Abraam, the “perfect monk.”
[Southern Egyptian Gallery, Bay 30, No. 1136.]]
[Illustration: Sepulchral tablet of Rachel, a Christian lady.
[Southern Egyptian Gallery, Bay 32, No. 1117.]]
Soon after the Arabs had conquered Egypt, they found it necessary to
keep a strong garrison at Syene, the modern Aswân. In order to relieve
the soldiers of the garrison from the duty of a pilgrimage to Mekkah,
an order was issued from Fosṭâṭ, the first Arab capital in Egypt, near
Old Cairo, that a pilgrimage to Aswân counted as a pilgrimage to Mekkah;
hence for some two or three hundred years Aswân was regarded as a holy
place, and pious Muslims were brought there from all parts to be buried.
A collection of =gravestones inscribed in Kûfî=, or Kufic, a form of
Arabic writing, from the old Muḥammadan cemetery at Aswân, is exhibited
in the Second Northern Gallery (Wall-cases 52-54). The oldest example is
that of Azhar, son of ʿAbd as-Salâm, who died in the year of the Hejira
252 = A.D. 866.
The Arab dynasties which ruled Egypt and the Sûdân between 656 and 1517
are as follows:—
=ʿOmayyad= Khalîfas[43] A.D. 661 - 750.
=ʿAbbâsid= Khalîfas ” 750 - 868.
=Tûlûnid= Khalîfas ” 868 - 913.
=Fâṭimid= Khalîfas ” 913 - 1193.
=Ayyûbid= Khalîfas ” 1193 - 1249.
=Baḥrite= Mamlûks ” 1249 - 1382.
=Circassian Mamlûks=[44] ” 1382 - 1517.
The Arab domination came to an end in 1517, when Selim, sultân of
Turkey, conquered the country, and =Egypt became a Turkish Province=, or
Pashalik.
A LIST OF THE PRINCIPAL KINGS OF EGYPT.
PREDYNASTIC PERIOD.
Kings of Lower Egypt.
1. .. .. u.
2 Seka.
3 Khaȧu.
4 Tȧu.
5 Thesh.
6 Neheb.
7 Uatch-nār, or Uatch-ȧnt.
8 Mekha.
9. .. .. a [10 ff. wanting].
DYNASTIC PERIOD.
First Dynasty.
B.C. 4400.
Menȧ (Menes).
Tetȧ.
Ȧteth.
Ȧta.
Semti (Ṭen).
Merpeba (Āt-ȧb).
Ḥu (Smerkha).
Sen (or, Qebḥ).
Second Dynasty.
B.C. 4133.
Neterbaiu, or Betchau, or Besh.
Ḥetep-Sekhemui.
Kakauu.
Baenneter.
Uatchnes.
Perȧbsen.
Senṭ.
Neferka-Rā.
Neferka-Seker.
Ḥetchefa.
Third Dynasty.
B.C. 3966.
Sanekht.
Bebi (Tchatchai).
Nebka-Rā.
Tcheser.
Tetȧ (Ḥen-nekht).
Setches.
Neferka-Rā Ḥuni.
Fourth Dynasty.
B.C. 3733.
Seneferu.
Shaȧru.
Khufu (Cheops).
Ṭeṭf-Rā.
Khāf-Rā (Chephren).
Menkau-Rā (Mykerinos).
Shepseskaf.
Sebekka-Rā.
I-em-ḥetep.
Fifth Dynasty.
B.C. 3566.
Userkaf.
Saḥu-Rā.
Neferȧrika-Rā.
Shepseska-Rā.
Khānefer-Rā.
Useren-Rā Ȧn.
Menkau-Ḥeru.
Ṭeṭka-Rā Ȧssȧ.
Unȧs.
Sixth Dynasty.
B.C. 3330.
Tetȧ.
Userka-Rā Ȧti.
Pepi I.
Meren-Rā I.
Pepi II.
Meren-Rā II.
Eleventh Dynasty.
B.C. 2600.
Ȧntef, the Erpā.
Ȧntef Uaḥ ānkh.
Ȧntef Nekht-neb-ṭep-nefer.
Menthu-ḥetep I.
Menthu-ḥetep II.
Menthu-ḥetep III.
Menthu-ḥetep IV.
Menthu-ḥetep V.
Menthu-ḥetep VI.
Menthu-ḥetep VII.
Twelfth Dynasty.
B.C. 2466.
Ȧmenemḥāt I.
Usertsen I.
Ȧmenemḥāt II.
Usertsen II.
Usertsen III.
Ȧmenemḥāt III.
Ḥer.
Ȧmenemḥāt IV.
Usertsen IV.
Sebek-neferu-Rā.
Eighteenth Dynasty.
Ȧāḥmes I ⎫ B.C. 1600.
Ȧmen-ḥetep I ⎭
Thothmes I ⎫
Thothmes II ⎪ B.C. 1550.
Ḥātshepset ⎪
Thothmes III ⎭
Ȧmen-ḥetep II, B.C. 1500.
Thothmes IV ⎫ B.C. 1450.
Ȧmen-ḥetep III ⎭
Ȧmen-ḥetep IV (or Khu-en-Ȧten) ⎫
Tutānkh-Ȧmen ⎪ B.C. 1400.
Ȧi ⎪
Ḥeruemḥeb ⎭
Nineteenth Dynasty.
Rameses I ⎫ B.C. 1350.
Seti I ⎭
Rameses II, B.C. 1330.
Meren-Ptaḥ.
Ȧmenmeses, B.C. 1250.
Sa-Ptaḥ.
Seti II.
Ȧrsu, the Syrian.
Twentieth Dynasty.
Set-nekht.
Rameses III, B.C. 1200.
Rameses IV.
Rameses V.
Rameses VI.
Rameses VII.
Rameses VIII.
Rameses IX.
Rameses X, B.C. 1133.
Rameses XI.
Rameses XII.
Twenty-first Dynasty.
B.C. 1100.
_At Tanis._
Nes-Ba-neb-Ṭeṭṭeṭ.
Pasebkhānut I.
Ȧmen-em-Ȧpt.
Sa-Ȧmen.
Pasebkhānut II.
_At Thebes._
Ḥer-Ḥeru.
Paiānkh.
Pai-Netchem I.
Men-kheper-Rā.
Pai-Netchem II.
Twenty-second Dynasty.
B.C. 966.
[Buiu-uaua, the founder.]
Shashanq I (Shishak).
Uasarken I.
Thekeleth I.
Uasarken II.
Shashanq II.
Thekeleth II.
Uasarken III.
Thekeleth III.
Shashanq III.
Pamȧi.
Shashanq IV.
Twenty-third Dynasty.
B.C. 750.
Peṭā-Bast.
Uasarken IV.
Tafnekht I.
Twenty-fourth Dynasty.
B.C. 733.
Bocchoris.
Tafnekht II.
Twenty-fifth Dynasty.
B.C. 700.
Kashta.
Piānkhi.
Shabaka (Sabaco).
Shabataka.
Taharqa (Tirhâḳâh).
Tanuath-Ȧmen.
Twenty-sixth Dynasty.
B.C. 666.
Psemthek I (Psammetichus).
Nekau (Necho).
Psemthek II.
Uaḥȧb-Rā (Ḥophra).
Ȧāḥmes II (Amāsis).
Psemthek III.
Twenty-seventh Dynasty.
B.C. 527.
Cambyses.
Darius I (Hystaspes.)
Xerxes I.
Artaxerxes.
Darius II.
Twenty-eighth Dynasty.
Amyrtaios.
Twenty-ninth Dynasty.
B.C. 399.
Naifaauruṭ.
Haḳer.
Psamut.
Thirtieth Dynasty.
B.C. 378.
Nekht-Ḥeru-ḥebt (Nektanebês).
Tcheḥrȧ (Teôs).
Nekht-nebf (Nektanebos).
Thirty-first Dynasty.
Darius III, B.C. 336.
Macedonians.
B.C. 340.
Alexander the Great.
Philip Arrhidaeus.
Alexander II.
Ptolemies.
B.C. 305-30.
Ptolemy I.
Ptolemy II.
Ptolemy III.
Ptolemy IV.
Ptolemy V.
Ptolemy VI.
Ptolemy VII.
Ptolemy VIII.
Ptolemy IX.
Ptolemy X.
Ptolemy XI.
Ptolemy XII.
Ptolemy XIII. ⎫
Cleopatra. ⎭
Ptolemy XIV.
Ptolemy XV.
Ptolemy XVI.
CARTOUCHES OF THE PRINCIPAL KINGS OF EGYPT.
𓆥𓍹𓏠𓈖𓇋𓍺 MENȦ.
𓆥𓍹𓈉𓈉𓏏𓏭𓍺 SEM-TI.
𓆥𓍹𓌻𓂋𓊸𓏤𓊪𓈖𓍺 MER-BA-PEN. (MER-P-BA.)
𓆥𓍹𓀘𓍺 SEMSU, or 𓆥𓍹𓀜𓍺 ḤU (or NEKHT)?
𓆥𓍹𓈎𓃀𓎛𓍺 or 𓍹𓈎𓃀𓎛𓅱𓏁𓍺 QEBḤ.
𓆥𓍹𓊹𓅢𓍺 NETER-BAIU, _i.e._, 𓍹𓃀𓈚𓍺 BESH, or 𓍹𓃀𓍑𓅱𓍺 BETCHAU.
𓆥𓍹𓂓𓂺𓂺𓂺𓍺 KA-KAU.
𓆥𓍹𓊸𓃝𓊹𓈖𓍺 BA-EN-NETER.
𓆥𓍹𓉐𓂋𓄣𓋴𓈖𓍺 PER-ȦB-SEN.
𓆥𓍹𓋴𓈖𓂧𓇋𓍺 SENṬȦ.
𓆥𓍹𓂋𓍺 TCHESER.
𓆥𓍹𓏏𓏏𓇋𓍺 TETȦ (ḤEN-NEKHT.) or 𓆥𓍹𓂋𓏏𓏏𓇋𓍺 TCHESERTETȦ.
𓆥𓍹𓇳𓄤𓂓𓍺 NEFER-KA-RĀ, 𓅭𓇳 son of the Sun, 𓍹𓎛𓀜𓈖𓏭𓂡𓍺 ḤUNI.
𓆥𓍹𓋴𓄤𓆑𓂋𓅱𓍺 SENEFERU.
𓆥𓍹𓐍𓅱𓆑𓅱𓍺 KHUFU. (CHEOPS.)
𓆥𓍹𓇳𓊽𓆑𓍺 ṬEṬ-F-RĀ.
𓆥𓍹𓇳𓈍𓆑𓍺 KHĀ-F-RĀ. (CHEPHREN.)
𓆥𓍹𓇳𓏠𓂓𓂓𓂓𓍺 MEN-KAU-RĀ. (MYCERINUS.)
𓆥𓍹𓀼𓊃𓊃𓂓𓆑𓍺 SHEPSES-KA-F.
𓆥𓍹𓇳𓆋𓂓𓍺 SEBEK-KA-RĀ.
𓆥𓍹𓇍𓅓𓊵𓏏𓊪𓍺 I-EM-ḤETEP.
𓆥𓍹𓄊𓋴𓂓𓆑𓍺 USR-KA-F.
𓆥𓍹𓇳𓃅𓅱𓍺 SAḤ-U-RĀ.
𓆥𓍹𓇳𓀼𓋴𓋴𓂓𓍺 SHEPSES-KA-RĀ.
𓆥𓍹𓇳𓈖𓄊𓋴𓂋𓍺 USR-EN-RĀ, 𓅭𓇳 son of the Sun, 𓍹𓇋𓆛𓈖𓍺 ȦN.
𓆥𓍹𓅃𓏠𓂓𓂓𓂓𓍺 MEN-KAU-ḤERU.
𓆥𓍹𓇳𓊽𓂓𓍺 ṬEṬ-KA-RĀ, 𓅭𓇳 son of the Sun, 𓍹𓇋𓊃𓊃𓇋𓍺 ȦSSȦ.
𓆥𓍹𓃹𓈖𓇋𓋴𓍺 UNȦS.
𓆥𓍹𓏏𓏏𓇋𓍺 TETȦ, or 𓍹𓏏𓏏𓇋𓌻𓈖𓊪𓏏𓎛𓍺 TETȦ-MER-EN-PTAḤ. (Tetȧ
beloved of Ptaḥ.)
𓆥𓍹𓇳𓌻𓇌𓍺 MERI-RĀ, 𓅭𓇳 son of the Sun, 𓍹𓊪𓊪𓇌𓍺 PEPI (I.).
𓆥𓍹𓇳𓌻𓂋𓈖𓍺 MER-EN-RĀ, 𓅭𓇳 son of the Sun, 𓍹𓅇𓅓𓎂𓆑𓍺
TCHEFAU-EM-SA-F.
𓆥𓍹𓇳𓄤𓂓𓍺 NEFER-KA-RĀ, 𓅭𓇳 son of the Sun, 𓍹𓊪𓊪𓇌𓍺 PEPI (II.).
𓆥𓍹𓇳𓌻𓈖𓅇𓅓𓎂𓆑𓍺 RĀ-MER-EN-TCHEFAU-EM-SA-F.
𓆥𓍹𓇳𓄣𓌻𓇌𓍺 RĀ-MERI-ȦB, 𓅭𓇳 son of the Sun, 𓍹𓄡𓏏𓇌𓍺 KHATI.
𓆥𓍹𓇳𓂓𓌻𓇌𓍺 RĀ-KA-MERI.
𓂋𓊪𓂝 ERPĀ 𓄂𓂝 ḤĀ 𓏎𓈖𓏏𓆑𓇋 ȦNTEF-Ȧ. The ERPĀ and ḤĀ, ȦNTEF-Ȧ.
𓆥𓍹[𓇳]𓎟𓐑𓏏𓍺 NEB-ḤAPT-RĀ, 𓅭𓇳 son of the Sun, 𓍹𓏠𓈖𓍿𓊵𓏏𓊪𓍺
MENTH-ḤETEP.
𓆥𓍹𓇳𓎟𓇾𓇾𓍺 NEB-TAUI-RĀ, 𓅭𓇳 son of the Sun, 𓍹𓏠𓈖𓍿𓊵𓏏𓊪𓍺
MENTH-ḤETEP.
𓆥𓍹𓇳𓎟𓊤𓍺 NEB-ḤAP-RĀ, 𓅭𓇳 son of the Sun, 𓍹𓏠𓈖𓍿𓊵𓏏𓊪𓍺
MENTH-ḤETEP.
𓆥𓍹𓇳𓌻𓋹𓍺 MER-ĀNKH-RĀ, 𓅭𓇳 son of the Sun, 𓍹𓏠𓈖𓍿𓅱𓊵𓏏𓊪𓍺
MENTHU-ḤETEP.
𓆥𓍹𓇳𓋴𓋹𓂓𓍺 SE-ĀNKH-KA-RĀ, 𓅭𓇳 son of the Sun, 𓍹𓏠𓈖𓍿𓅱𓊵𓏏𓊪𓍺
MENTHU-ḤETEP.
𓆥𓍹𓇳𓏣𓉔𓂋𓁷𓏤𓐙𓏛𓍺 RĀ-SESHESH-HER-ḤER-MAĀT, 𓅭𓇳 son of the Sun,
𓍹𓏎𓉼𓈖𓏏𓆑𓍺 ȦNTEF-ĀA (I.).
𓅭𓇳 𓍹𓏎𓈖𓏏𓆑𓉻𓍺 son of the Sun, ȦNTEF-ĀA (II.).
𓆥𓍹𓇳𓏣𓄋𓊪𓏲𓀁𓌷𓏛𓆄𓍺 RĀ-SESHESH-ȦPU-MAĀT, 𓅭𓇳 son of the Sun,
𓍹𓏎𓈖𓏏𓆑𓉻𓏛𓍺 ȦNTEF-ĀA (III.).
𓆥𓍹𓅭𓇳𓏎𓈖𓏏𓆑𓉼𓍺 son of the Sun, ȦNTEF-ĀA (IV.).
𓆥𓍹𓇳𓋞𓆣𓍺 NUB-KHEPER-RĀ, 𓅭𓇳 son of the Sun, 𓍹𓏎𓈖𓏏𓆑𓍺 ȦNTEF.
𓆥𓍹𓇳𓋴𓊵𓏏𓊪𓄣𓍺 SEḤETEP-ȦB-RĀ, 𓅭𓇳 son of the Sun, 𓍹𓇋𓏠𓈖𓅓𓄂𓏏𓍺
ȦMEN-EM-ḤĀT (I.).
𓆥𓍹𓇳𓆣𓂓𓍺 KHEPER-KA-RĀ, 𓅭𓇳 son of the Sun, 𓍹𓄊𓋴𓂋𓏏𓊃𓈖𓍺
USERTSEN (I.). (SESONCHOSIS.)
𓆥𓍹𓇳𓋞𓂓𓂓𓂓𓍺 NUB-KAU-RĀ, 𓅭𓇳 son of the Sun, 𓍹𓇋𓏠𓈖𓅓𓄂𓏏𓍺
ȦMEN-EM-ḤĀT (II.).
𓆥𓍹𓇳𓈍𓆣𓍺 KHEPER-KHĀ-RĀ, 𓅭𓇳 son of the Sun, 𓍹𓄊𓋴𓂋𓏏𓊃𓈖𓍺
USERTSEN (II.).
𓆥𓍹𓇳𓈍𓂓𓂓𓂓𓍺 KHĀ-KAU-RĀ, 𓅭𓇳 son of the Sun, 𓍹𓄊𓋴𓂋𓏏𓊃𓈖𓍺
USERTSEN (III.).
𓆥𓍹𓇳𓈖𓌷𓂝𓏏𓍺 MAĀT-EN-RĀ, 𓅭𓇳 son of the Sun, 𓍹𓇋𓏠𓈖𓅓𓄂𓏏𓍺
ȦMEN-EM-ḤĀT (III.).
𓆥𓍹𓇳𓌷𓂝𓊤𓅱𓍺 MAĀ-KHERU-RĀ, 𓅭𓇳 son of the Sun, 𓍹𓇋𓏠𓈖𓅓𓄂𓏏𓍺
ȦMEN-EM-ḤĀT (IV.).
𓆥𓍹𓇳𓄫𓄣𓍺 RĀ-ȦU-ȦB, 𓅭𓇳 son of the Sun, 𓍹𓁷𓂋𓈐𓍺 ḤER.
𓆥𓍹𓇳𓆋𓄤𓄤𓄤𓍺 SEBEK-NEFERU-RĀ.
𓆥𓍹𓇳𓐍𓂤𓇾𓇾𓍺 KHU-TAUI-RĀ, 𓅭𓇳 son of the Sun, 𓍹𓅃𓎼𓄑𓄑𓍺
ḤERU-NEST(?)-TAUI(?).
𓎟𓇾𓇾𓍹𓄣𓏤𓇋𓂝𓈗𓍺 ȦĀ-ȦB.
𓊹𓄤 Neter nefer Beautiful God, 𓍹𓇳𓉻𓂝𓄣𓇾𓇾𓍺 ĀA-ȦB-TAUI-RĀ, 𓅭𓇳
son of the Sun, 𓍹𓇋𓀁𓊪𓊪𓇋𓍺 ȦPEPȦ.
𓊹𓄤 Neter nefer 𓍹𓇳𓉻𓂝𓈎𓈖𓈖𓍺 ĀA-QENEN-RĀ, 𓅭𓇳 son of the Sun,
𓍹𓇋𓀁𓊪𓊪𓇋𓍺 ȦPEPȦ.
𓆥𓍹𓃩𓉻𓄇𓄇𓍺 ĀA-PEḤ-TI-SET, 𓅭𓇳 son of the Sun, 𓍹𓋟𓏏𓏭𓃩𓍺
NUBTI(?).
𓆥𓍹𓇳𓋴𓈖𓍺 SE-USER-EN-RĀ, 𓅭𓇳 son of the Sun, 𓍹𓐍𓇌𓄿𓈖𓍺 KHIAN.
𓆥𓍹𓋴𓇳𓈎𓈖𓈖𓂡𓍺 SEQENEN-RĀ, 𓅭𓇳 son of the Sun, 𓍹𓏏𓆇𓏥𓉻𓏛𓍺
TAU-ĀA.
𓆥𓍹𓋴𓇳𓈎𓈖𓈖𓂡𓍺 SEQENEN-RĀ, 𓅭𓇳 son of the Sun, 𓍹𓏏𓆇𓏥𓉻𓏛𓉼𓏜𓍺
TAU-ĀA-ĀA.
𓆥𓍹𓇳𓊃𓈎𓈖𓈖𓍺 SEQENEN-RĀ, 𓅭𓇳 son of the Sun, 𓍹𓏏𓆇𓏥𓉻𓈎𓈖𓂡𓍺
TAU-ĀA-QEN.
𓆥𓍹𓇳𓇅𓆣𓍺 UATCH-KHEPER-RĀ, 𓅭𓇳 son of the Sun, 𓍹𓂓𓏤𓀭𓄠𓋴𓍺 KAMES.
𓆥𓍹𓇳𓊃𓏄𓎟𓍺 RĀ-SEKHENT-NEB, 𓅭𓇳 son of the Sun,
𓍹𓇳𓊃𓈖𓆱𓐍𓏏𓂡𓈖𓍺 RĀ-SEKHENT-EN.
𓆥𓎟𓇾𓇾𓍹𓇳𓎟𓄇𓄇𓍺 NEB-PEḤTI-RĀ, 𓅭𓇳 son of the Sun, 𓍹𓇺𓄠𓋴𓍺
ȦĀḤMES. (AMĀSIS I.)
𓆥𓍹𓇳𓂓𓍺 TCHESER-KA-RĀ, 𓅭𓇳 son of the Sun, 𓍹𓇋𓏠𓈖𓊵𓏏𓊪𓍺
ȦMEN-ḤETEP. (AMENOPHIS I.)
𓆥𓍹𓇳𓉻𓆣𓂓𓍺 ĀA-KHEPER-KA-RĀ, 𓅭𓇳 son of the Sun, 𓍹𓅝𓏏𓏭𓄠𓋴𓍺
TEḤUTI-MES. (THOTHMES I.)
𓆥𓍹𓇳𓉻𓆣𓈖𓍺 ĀA-KHEPER-EN-RĀ, 𓅭𓇳 son of the Sun,
𓍹𓅝𓏏𓏭𓄠𓊃𓄤𓈍𓏥𓍺 NEFER-KHĀU-TEḤUTI-MES. (THOTHMES II.)
𓆥𓍹𓇳𓁦𓂓𓍺 MAĀT-KA-RĀ, 𓅭𓇳 son of the Sun, 𓍹𓇋𓏠𓈖𓎸𓄂𓏏𓏏𓀼𓏪𓍺
ḤĀT-SHEPSET-KHNEM-ȦMEN. (QUEEN HATSHEPSU.)
𓆥𓍹𓇳𓏠𓆣𓍺 MEN-KHEPER-RĀ, 𓅭𓇳 son of the Sun, 𓍹𓅝𓏏𓏭𓄠𓋴𓍺
TEḤUTI-MES. (THOTHMES III.)
𓆥𓍹𓇳𓉻𓆣𓏪𓍺 ĀA-KHEPERU-RĀ, 𓅭𓇳 son of the Sun, 𓍹𓇋𓏠𓈖𓊵𓊹𓋾𓉺𓍺
ȦMEN-ḤETEP NETER ḤEQ ȦNNU. (AMENOPHIS II.)
𓆥𓍹𓇳𓏠𓆣𓏪𓍺 MEN-KHEPERU-RĀ, 𓅭𓇳 son of the Sun, 𓍹𓅝𓏏𓏭𓄠𓋴𓈍𓈍𓏦𓍺
TEḤUTI-MES-KHĀ-KHĀU. (THOTHMES IV.)
𓆥𓍹𓇳𓁧𓎟𓍺 NEB-MAĀT-RĀ, 𓅭𓇳 son of the Sun, 𓍹𓇋𓏠𓈖𓊵𓋾𓋆𓍺
ȦMEN-ḤETEP ḤEQ UAST. (AMENOPHIS III.)
𓇓𓈞𓏏 SUTEN ḤEMT 𓍹𓍘𓇌𓏭𓁗𓍺 THI. (A MESOPOTAMIAN WIFE OF AMENOPHIS
III.)
𓆥𓍹𓄤𓆣𓏪𓇳𓌡𓈖𓍺 NEFER-KHEPERU-RĀ UĀ-EN-RĀ, 𓅭𓇳 son of the Sun,
𓍹𓇋𓏠𓈖𓊵𓊹𓋾𓋆𓍺 ȦMEN-ḤETEP NETER ḤEQ UAST. (AMENOPHIS IV.)
or 𓍹𓇋𓏏𓈖𓇳𓅜𓐍𓈖𓍺 KHU-EN-ȦTEN.
𓇓𓈞𓏏 SUTEN ḤEMT Royal wife, 𓅨𓏏𓂋 URT great lady. 𓍹𓇋𓏏𓈖𓇳𓄤 𓄤𓄤𓄤
𓄤𓏏𓏭𓇍𓍘𓁗𓍺 NEFER NEFERU-ȦTEN NEFERTI-ITH.
𓆥𓍹𓇳𓋹𓆣𓏪𓍺 ĀNKH-KHEPERU-RĀ, 𓅭𓇳 son of the Sun, 𓍹𓇳𓊃𓉻𓂓𓃒𓂡𓆣𓏪𓍺
SĀA-KA-NEKHT-KHEPERU-RĀ.
𓆥𓍹𓇳𓆣𓏪𓎟𓍺 NEB-KHEPERU-RĀ, 𓅭𓇳 son of the Sun, 𓍹𓇋𓏠𓈖𓏏𓏏𓅱𓋹𓋾𓉺𓇓𓍺
TUT-ĀNKH-ȦMEN ḤEQ ȦNNU RESU.
𓆥𓍹𓇳𓆣𓆣𓏪𓁧𓁹𓍺 KHEPER-KHEPERU-MAĀT-ȦRI-RĀ, 𓅭𓇳 son of the Sun,
𓍹𓏐𓊹𓇋𓀁𓇌𓊹𓋾𓋆𓍺 ȦTF-NETER ȦI NETER ḤEQ UAST.
𓆥𓍹𓇳𓆣𓏪𓇳𓍉𓈖𓍺 TCHESER-KHEPERU-RĀ-SETEP-EN-RĀ, 𓅭𓇳 son of the
Sun, 𓍹𓇋𓏠𓈖𓌹𓅃𓋔𓐝𓎱𓍺 ȦMEN-MERI-EN ḤERU-EM-ḤEB.
𓆥𓍹𓇳𓏠𓄇𓏏𓏏𓍺 MEN-PEḤTET-RĀ, 𓅭𓇳 son of the Sun, 𓍹𓇳𓄠𓋴𓇓𓅱𓍺
RĀ-MESSU. (RAMESES I.)
𓆥𓍹𓇳𓁧𓏠𓍺 MEN-MAĀT-RĀ, 𓅭𓇳 son of the Sun, 𓍹𓊪𓏏𓎛𓌹𓇌𓈖𓍺
PTAḤ-MERI-EN-SETI. (SETI I.)
𓆥𓍹𓇳𓄊𓁧𓇳𓍉𓈖𓍺 USR-MAĀT-RĀ SETEP-EN-RĀ, 𓅭𓇳 son of the Sun,
𓍹𓁩𓈘𓄠𓋴𓇓𓍺 RĀ-MESSU-MERI-ȦMEN. (RAMESES II.)
or 𓆥𓍹𓄊𓆄𓇳𓏤𓍉𓏌𓇳𓏤𓍺 USR-MAĀT-RĀ SETEP-EN-RĀ, 𓅭𓇳 son of the
Sun, 𓍹𓇋𓏠𓈖𓈘𓇳𓏤𓄠𓋴𓋴𓍺 ȦMEN MER-RĀ-MESES.
𓆥𓍹𓁩𓈘𓈖𓃝𓍺 BA-RĀ-MERI-EN-ȦMEN, 𓅭𓇳 son of the Sun,
𓍹𓁧𓈘𓈖𓊵𓁷𓏤𓍺 PTAḤ-MERI-EN-ḤETEP-ḤER-MAĀT. (MENEPHTHAH.)
𓆥𓍹𓄊𓆣𓏪𓇳𓈘𓇋𓏠𓈖𓍺 USR-KHEPERU-RĀ-MERI-ȦMEN, 𓅭𓇳 son of the Sun,
𓍹𓇌𓈘𓈖𓊪𓏏𓎛𓍺 SETI-MERI-EN-PTAḤ. (SETI II.)
𓆥𓍹𓇳𓏠𓈖𓏇𓇋𓇳𓍉𓈖𓍺 MEN-MȦ-RĀ SETEP-EN-RĀ, 𓅭𓇳 son of the Sun,
𓍹𓁩𓄠𓋴𓋴𓋾𓈎𓋆𓍺 ȦMEN-MESES-ḤEQ-UAST. (ȦMEN-MESES.)
𓆥𓍹𓐍𓅜𓏜𓇳𓈖𓇳𓍉𓈖𓍺 KHU-EN-RĀ SETEP-EN-RĀ, 𓅭𓇳 son of the Sun,
𓍹𓌹𓈖𓆇𓏤𓍺 PTAḤ-MERI-EN-SA-PTAḤ. (MENEPHTHAH II.)
𓆥𓍹𓄊𓈍𓏦𓇳𓇳𓍉𓈖𓇋𓏠𓈖𓈘𓍺 USR-KHĀU-RĀ SETEP-EN-RĀ-MERI-ȦMEN, 𓅭𓇳
son of the Sun, 𓍹𓇳𓁩𓈘𓏏𓂡𓈘𓂋𓂋𓍺 RĀ-MERI ȦMEN-MERER SET-NEKHT.
𓆥𓍹𓇳𓄊𓁧𓈘𓇋𓏠𓈖𓍺 USR-MAĀT-RĀ-MERI-ȦMEN, 𓅭𓇳 son of the Sun,
𓍹𓁛𓄠𓊃𓊃𓋾𓈎𓉺𓍺 RĀ-MESES-ḤEQ-ȦNNU. (RAMESES III.)
𓆥𓍹𓇳𓄊𓁧𓁩𓋔𓍉𓍺 USR-MAĀT-RĀ SETEP-EN-ȦMEN, 𓅭𓇳 son of the Sun,
𓍹𓇳𓁩𓈘𓄠𓋾𓆄𓊃𓊃𓍺 RĀ-MESES-MERI-ȦMEN-RĀ ḤEQ MAĀT. (RAMESES IV.)
𓆥𓍹𓇳𓄊𓁧𓋴𓆣𓈖𓍺 USR-MAĀT-RĀ S-KHEPER-EN-RĀ, 𓅭𓇳 son of the Sun,
𓍹𓇳𓁩𓁩𓈘𓇓𓄠𓋴𓆑𓍺 RĀ-MES-MERI ȦMEN-ȦMEN SUTEN-F. (RAMESES V.)
𓆥𓍹𓇳𓁩𓁧𓈘𓎟𓍺 RĀ-ȦMEN-MAĀT-MERI-NEB, 𓅭𓇳 son of the Sun,
𓍹𓇳𓁩𓄠𓊃𓊃𓊹𓋾𓉺𓍺 RĀ-ȦMEN-MESES NETER ḤEQ ȦNNU. (RAMESES VI.)
𓆥𓍹𓇳𓄊𓁧𓈘𓇳𓍉𓈖𓍺 RĀ-USR-MAĀ-ȦMEN-MERI-SETEP-EN-RĀ, 𓅭𓇳 son of
the Sun, 𓍹𓇳𓁩𓄠𓊃𓊃𓏏𓇋𓊹𓋾𓉺𓍺 RĀ-ȦMEN-MESES-TȦ NETER-ḤEQ-ȦNNU.
(RAMESES VII.)
𓆥𓍹𓇳𓁧𓄊𓁩𓅜𓐍𓈖𓍺 RĀ-MAĀT-USR-KHU-EN-ȦMEN, 𓅭𓇳 son of the Sun,
𓍹𓇳𓁩𓈘𓄠𓋴𓋴𓍺 RĀ-ȦMEN-MESES-MERI-ȦMEN. (RAMESES VIII.)
𓎟𓇾𓈅𓏤 Neb ta Lord of the Land, 𓍹𓋴𓈍𓈖𓇳𓈘𓇋𓏠𓈖𓍺 S-KHĀ-EN-RĀ
MERI-ȦMEN, 𓎟𓈍𓏦 neb khāu lord of crowns, 𓍹𓄠𓊃𓊃𓆇𓏤𓊪𓏏𓎛𓍺
RĀ-MESES-SA-PTAḤ. (RAMESES IX.)
𓆥𓍹𓇳𓄤𓂓𓏦𓇳𓍉𓈖𓍺 NEFER-KAU-RĀ SETEP-EN-RĀ, 𓅭𓇳 son of the Sun,
𓍹𓈍𓁛𓋆𓁩𓄠𓋴𓋴𓌻𓂋𓂋𓍺 RĀ-MESES-MERER-ȦMEN-KHĀ-UAST. (RAMESES X.)
𓎟𓇾𓈅𓏤𓍹𓇳𓆣𓁧𓇳𓍉𓈖𓍺 RĀ-KHEPER-MAĀT SETEP-EN-RĀ, 𓅭𓇳 son of the
Sun, 𓍹𓁛𓁩𓇓𓄠𓋴𓍺 RĀ-MES SUTEN (?) ȦMEN. (RAMESES XI.)
𓆥𓍹𓇳𓏠𓁧𓀮𓍉𓈖𓍺 MEN-MAĀT-RĀ SETEP-EN-RĀ, 𓅭𓇳 son of the Sun,
𓍹𓈍𓁛𓋆𓈘𓂋𓂋𓄠𓊹𓋾𓉺𓊃𓊃𓍺 RĀ-MESES-MERER-ȦMEN KHĀ UAST NETER ḤEQ
ȦNNU. (RAMESES XII.)
𓊹𓄤𓎟𓇾𓇾𓍹𓇳𓋑𓆣𓇳𓍉𓈖𓍺 RĀ-ḤETCH-KHEPER-SETEP-EN-RĀ, 𓅭𓇳 son of
the Sun, 𓍹𓇋𓏠𓈖𓌻𓄓𓊃𓃝𓎟𓊽𓊽𓏏𓊖𓍺 ȦMEN-MER-NES-BA-NEB-TEṬṬEṬET.
(SMENDES.)
𓆥𓍹𓇳𓉻𓆣𓍉𓈖𓍺 RĀ-ĀA-KHEPER SETEP-EN-MENTU, 𓅭𓇳 son of the Sun,
𓍹𓇋𓏠𓈖𓌹𓅮𓇼𓈍𓈖𓊖𓍺 ȦMEN-MERI PA-SEB-KHĀ-NU. (PASEBKHĀNU I.)
𓆥𓍹𓊹𓍛𓁶𓊪𓇋𓈖𓏠𓈖𓍺 NETER-ḤEN-ṬEP-EN-ȦMEN, Prophet first of ȦMEN,
𓅭𓇳 son of the Sun, 𓍹𓇋𓏠𓈖𓆇𓏤𓇯𓅃𓍺 ḤER-ḤERU-SA-ȦMEN. (ḤER-ḤERU.)
𓆥𓍹𓇳𓋑𓆣𓇳𓍉𓈖𓍺 KHEPER-ḤETCH-RĀ SETEP-EN-RĀ 𓅭𓇳 son of the Sun,
𓍹𓇋𓏠𓈖𓈘𓆷𓆷𓈖𓈎𓍺 ȦMEN-MERI-SHASHANQ. (SHISHAK I.)
𓆥𓍹𓇳𓌂𓆣𓇳𓍉𓈖𓍺 SEKHEM-KHEPER-RĀ SETEP-EN-RĀ 𓅭𓇳 son of the Sun,
𓍹𓇋𓏠𓈖𓈘𓍯𓐠𓇋𓂋𓎡𓈖𓍺 ȦMEN-MERI UASARKEN. (OSORKON I.)
𓆥𓍹𓇳𓄊𓆄𓇋𓏠𓈖𓍉𓈖𓍺 RĀ-USR-MAĀT-ȦMEN-SETEP-EN, 𓅭𓇳 son of the Sun,
𓍹𓇋𓏠𓈖𓈘𓊨𓆇𓏤𓍘𓂋𓎡𓍿𓍺 ȦMEN-MERI-SA-AST. THEKELETH.
𓆥𓍹𓇳𓄊𓁧𓇋𓏠𓈖𓍉𓈖𓍺 RĀ-USR-MAĀT SETEP-EN-ȦMEN, 𓅭𓇳 son of the Sun,
𓍹𓇋𓏠𓈖𓈘𓆇𓏤𓎯𓍯𓐠𓂋𓎡𓈖𓍺 ȦMEN-MERI SA-BAST UASARKEN. (OSORKON II.)
𓆥𓍹𓇳𓏣𓆣𓇋𓏠𓈖𓍉𓈖𓍺 SESHESH-KHEPER-RĀ SETEP-EN-ȦMEN, 𓅭𓇳 son of the
Sun, 𓍹𓇋𓏠𓈖𓇳𓈘𓆷𓆷𓍺 ȦMEN-RĀ-MERI SHASH[ANQ]. (SHISHAK II.)
𓆥𓍹𓇳𓋑𓁩𓍉𓈖𓊹𓋾𓋆𓍺 ḤETCH-RĀ-SETEP-EN-ȦMEN, NETER ḤEQ UAST, 𓅭𓇳 son
of the Sun, 𓍹𓇋𓏠𓈖𓈘𓊨𓏏𓆇𓍘𓎡𓂋𓍘𓈘𓍺 ȦMEN-MERI ȦSET-MERI THEKELETH.
(TAKELETH II.)
𓆥𓍹𓇳𓆄𓄊𓇳𓍉𓈖𓍺 USR-MAĀT-RĀ SETEP-EN-RĀ, 𓅭𓇳 son of the Sun,
𓍹𓇋𓏠𓈖𓌻𓆷𓆷𓈖𓈎𓋾𓊹𓉺𓍺 ȦMEN-MERI-SHASHANQ ḤEQ NETER ȦNNU. (SHISHAK
III.)
𓆥𓍹𓇳𓄊𓆄𓍉𓈖𓇋𓏠𓈖𓍺 USR-MAĀT-RĀ SETEP-EN-ȦMEN, 𓅭𓇳 son of the Sun,
𓍹𓇋𓏠𓈖𓌻𓅮𓏇𓇌𓍺 ȦMEN-MERI PA-MȦI. (PA-MȦI.)
𓆥𓍹𓇳𓉻𓆣𓍺 ĀA-KHEPER-RĀ, 𓅭𓇳 son of the Sun, 𓍹𓆷𓆷𓈖𓈎𓍺 SHASHANQ.
(SHISHAK IV.)
𓆥𓍹𓇳𓊃𓉔𓂋𓄣𓍺 SE-HER-ȦB-RĀ, 𓅭𓇳 son of the Sun, 𓍹𓎯𓏏𓆇𓊪𓂞𓆇𓏤𓍺
PEṬĀ-SA-BAST.
𓆥𓍹𓉻𓆣𓁩𓍉𓈖𓍺 ĀA-KHEPER-RĀ SETEP-EN-ȦMEN, 𓅭𓇳 son of the Sun,
𓍹𓇋𓏠𓈖𓈘𓍯𓐠𓂋𓎡𓈖𓇋𓍺 RĀ-ȦMEN-MERI UASARKENȦ. (OSORKON IV.)
𓆥𓍹𓇳𓎝𓂓𓍺 UAḤ-KA-RĀ, 𓅭𓇳 son of the Sun, 𓍹𓅡𓎡𓈖𓂋𓈖𓆑𓍺 BAKENRENF.
𓇓𓏏𓈖 SUTEN King 𓍹𓂓𓈚𓇾𓍺 KASHTA. Kashta.
𓆥𓍹𓇋𓏠𓈖𓈘𓊪𓋹𓇌𓍺 ȦMEN-MERI P-ĀNKHI, 𓅭𓇳 son of the Sun, 𓍹𓊪𓋹𓇌𓍺
P-ĀNKHI.
𓆥𓍹𓇳𓏠𓆣𓍺 MEN-KHEPER-RĀ, 𓅭𓇳 son of the Sun, 𓍹𓊪𓋹𓇌𓍺 P-ĀNKHI.
𓆥𓍹𓇳𓄤𓂓𓍺 NEFER-KA-RĀ, 𓅭𓇳 son of the Sun, 𓍹𓆷𓃝𓂓𓍺 SHABAKA.
(SABACO.)
𓆥𓍹𓇳𓊽𓂓𓂓𓂓𓍺 ṬEṬ-KAU-RĀ, 𓅭𓇳 son of the Sun, 𓍹𓆷𓃝𓇾𓂓𓍺
SHABATAKA.
𓆥𓍹𓇳𓄤𓏏𓍃𓐍𓅱𓍺 RĀ-NEFER-TEM-KHU, 𓅭𓇳 son of the Sun, 𓍹𓇾𓉔𓃭𓈎𓍺
TAHRQ, or 𓍹𓇾𓉔𓄿𓃭𓈎𓄿𓍺 TAHARQA. (TIRHÂḲÂH.)
𓆥𓎟𓇾𓇾𓍹𓇳𓃝𓂓𓍺 RĀ-BA-KA, 𓅭𓇳 son of the Sun, 𓎟𓈍𓏦 lord of
Crowns, 𓍹𓇋𓏠𓈖𓇾𓈖𓍯𓍘𓍺 ȦMEN-TA-NUATH.
𓆥𓍹𓇳𓎝𓄣𓍺 UAḤ-ȦB-RĀ, 𓅭𓇳 son of the Sun, 𓍹𓊪𓋴𓅓𓍿𓎡𓍺 PSEMTHEK.
(PSAMMETICHUS I.)
𓆥𓍹𓇳𓄙𓅓𓄣𓍺 UḤEM-ȦB-RĀ, 𓅭𓇳 son of the Sun, 𓍹𓈖𓂓𓅱𓍺 NEKAU.
(NECHO II.)
𓆥𓍹𓇳𓄤𓄣𓍺 NEFER-ȦB-RĀ, 𓅭𓇳 son of the Sun, 𓍹𓊪𓋴𓅓𓍿𓎡𓍺 PSEMTHEK.
(PSAMMETICHUS II.)
𓆥𓍹𓇳𓎛𓂝𓂝𓄣𓍺 ḤĀĀ-ȦB-RĀ, 𓅭𓇳 son of the Sun, 𓍹𓇳𓎝𓄣𓍺 UAḤ-ȦB-RĀ.
(APRIES.)
𓆥𓍹𓇳𓎸𓄣𓍺 KHNEM-ȦB-RĀ, 𓅭𓇳 son of the Sun, 𓍹𓇺𓄠𓋋︀𓅭𓏤𓍺
ȦĀḤMES-SA-NET. (AMĀSIS II.)
𓆥𓍹𓇳𓋹𓂓𓈖𓍺 ĀNKH-KA-EN-RĀ, 𓅭𓇳 son of the Sun, 𓍹𓊪𓋴𓅓𓍿𓎡𓍺
PSEMTHEK. (PSAMMETICHUS III.)
𓆥𓍹𓇳𓄠𓋴𓅱𓍘𓍺 MESUTH-RĀ, 𓅭𓇳 son of the Sun, 𓍹𓎡𓅓𓃀𓇋𓍿𓏏𓍺
KEMBȦTHET. (CAMBYSES.)
𓆥𓍹𓇳𓋴𓏏𓏏𓅱𓍺 SETTU-RĀ, 𓅭𓇳 son of the Sun, 𓍹𓏎𓇾𓃭𓇌𓅱𓆷𓍺
ȦNTARIUSHA. (DARIUS HYSTASPES.)
𓆥𓎟𓇾𓇾 Lord of two lands, 𓍹𓐍𓆷𓇌𓄿𓃭𓏤𓆷𓍺 KHSHAIARSHA. 𓅮𓉻𓂝
(XERXES THE GREAT.)
𓆥𓍹𓋴𓇒𓈖𓊪𓏏𓎛𓍉𓍺 SENEN-EN-PTAḤ-TANEN-SETEP, 𓅭𓇳 son of the
Sun, 𓍹𓆼𓃀𓃀𓆷𓍺 (KHABBESHA.)
𓆥𓍹𓄿𓃭𓇾𓐍𓆷𓆷𓋴𓍺[45] ARTAKHSHASHAS. (ARTAXERXES.)
𓆥𓍹𓁚𓁩𓈘𓇌𓍺 RĀ-MERI-ȦMEN, 𓅭𓇳 son of the Sun, 𓍹𓏎𓍘𓃭𓇌𓌗𓆷𓍺
ȦNTHERIRUṬSHA. (DARIUS NOTHUS.)
𓆥𓍹𓇳𓃝𓈖𓊹𓊹𓊹𓈘𓍺 BA-EN-RĀ NETERU-MERI, 𓅭𓇳 son of the Sun,
𓍹𓈖𓏭𓄿𓆑𓉻𓏲𓏦𓌗𓍺 NAIFAAURUṬ.
𓆥𓍹𓎸𓁧𓇳𓍺 KHNEM-MAĀT-RĀ, 𓅭𓇳 son of the Sun, 𓍹𓉔𓄿𓎼𓃭𓍺 HAḲER.
𓆥𓍹𓇳𓄊𓋴𓊪𓏏𓎛𓍉𓈖𓍺 RĀ-USR-SETEP-EN-PTAḤ, 𓅭𓇳 son of the Sun,
𓍹𓊪𓀔𓏏𓅐𓍺 PSAMUT.
𓆥𓍹𓁛𓁩𓋴𓇛𓄣𓏤𓍉𓈖𓍺 S-NETCHEM-ȦB-RĀ SETEP-EN-ȦMEN, 𓅭𓇳 son of the
Sun, 𓍹𓁩𓌻𓂡𓅃𓎳𓏏𓊖𓍺 NEKHT-ḤERU-ḤEBT-MERI-ȦMEN. (NEKTANEBÊS.)
𓆥𓍹𓇳𓁹𓌷𓏏𓂝𓈖𓍺 RĀ-ȦRI-EN-MAĀT, 𓅭𓇳 son of the Sun,
𓍹𓏎𓇯𓀭𓆓𓁷𓏤𓍉𓈖𓍺 TCHE-ḤRȦ-SETEP-EN-ȦN-ḤER.
𓆥𓍹𓇳𓆣𓂓𓍺 KHEPER-KA-RĀ, 𓅭𓇳 son of the Sun, 𓍹𓈖𓆱𓐍𓏏𓂡𓃭𓆑𓍺
NEKHT-NEB-F. (NEKTANEBOS.)
𓆥𓍹𓁬𓁛𓈖𓍉𓈘𓍺 SETEP-EN-RĀ-MERI-ȦMEN, 𓅭𓇳 son of the Sun,
𓍹𓄿𓃭𓎡𓊃𓇋𓈖𓂧𓂋𓊃𓍺 ALEKSȦNṬRES. (ALEXANDER THE GREAT.)
𓎟𓇿𓇿 Neb taui 𓍹𓁞𓁩𓍉𓈖𓈘𓍺 SETEP-EN-RĀ-MERI-ȦMEN, 𓅭𓇳 son of
the Sun, 𓍹𓊪𓉔𓇌𓅱𓃭𓇌𓅱𓊪𓍯𓋴𓍺 PHIULIUPUAS. (PHILIP ARRHIDAEUS.)
𓆥𓍹𓇳𓀠𓄣𓍉𓈖𓇋𓏠𓈖𓍺 RĀ-QA-ȦB-SETEP-EN-ȦMEN, 𓅭𓇳 son of the Sun,
𓍹𓄿𓃭𓎡𓊃𓇋𓈖𓂧𓂋𓊃𓍺 ALEKSȦNṬRES. (ALEXANDER II.)
𓆥𓍹𓁞𓁩𓍉𓈖𓈘𓍺 SETEP-EN-RĀ-MERI-ȦMEN, 𓅭𓇳 son of the Sun,
𓍹𓊪𓂧𓅱𓃭𓐝𓇌𓋴𓍺 PṬULMIS. (PTOLEMY I. SOTER I.)
𓆥𓍹𓇳𓄊𓂓𓏤𓇋𓏠𓈖𓈘𓍺 RĀ-USR-KA-MERI-ȦMEN, 𓅭𓇳 son of the Sun,
𓍹𓊪𓏏𓃭𓏲𓐝𓇌𓋴𓍺 PṬULMIS. (PTOLEMY II. PHILADELPHUS.)
𓆥𓍹𓊹𓇶𓊹𓄯𓈖𓊪𓏏𓎛𓍉𓈖𓁹𓐙︂𓁞𓁩𓌂𓋹𓍺
NETERUI-PERUI-ĀĀ-EN-PTAḤ-SETEP-EN-ȦMEN-ȦRI-MAĀT-RĀ-SEKHEM-ĀNKH,
𓅭𓇳 son of the Sun, 𓍹𓊪𓏏𓍯𓃭𓐝𓇌𓋴𓋹𓆓𓏏𓇾𓊪𓏏𓎛𓈘𓍺 PTUALMIS ĀNKH
TCHETTA PTAḤ MERI. PTOLEMY (IX. EUERGETES II.), living for
ever, beloved of PTAḤ.
𓎟𓇾𓇾 Nebt taui Lady of two lands,
𓍹𓈎𓃭𓄿𓊪𓂧𓂋𓄿𓏏𓆇𓆓𓂧𓏏𓏲𓏌𓋴𓂧𓂋𓄿𓊪𓏌𓏏𓆇𓍺 QLAPEṬRAT TCHEṬTU-NES
ṬRAPENET. CLEOPATRA, called TRYPHAENA.
𓇴𓆇 Rā sa son of the Sun, 𓃭𓈍𓏦 neb khāu lord of diadems,
𓍹𓎡𓇌𓋴𓃭𓊃𓋹𓆓𓏏𓇾𓊪𓏏𓎛𓊨𓏏𓆇𓈘𓍺 KISERES ĀNKH TCHETTA PTAḤ ȦSET
MERI CAESAR, living for ever, of PTAḤ and ISIS beloved.
FOOTNOTES
[1] The Peninsula of Sinai has been a province of Egypt for about 6,000
years.
[2] To these must now be added the Barrage at Esna.
[3] Names printed in heavy type are Egyptian; those in capitals are
Greek, and those _in italics_ are the names by which the places are known
by the modern Arabs.
[4] 𓄔𓂋𓎡𓈖𓀀𓂝𓎡𓄤𓆑𓂋𓄔𓅓𓈖𓂋𓍿𓀀𓁐𓏪𓌞𓋴𓂻
𓉔𓂋𓅱𓇳𓏤𓄤𓆑𓂋𓋴𓐍𓂜𓎖𓂝𓀁.
[5] 𓂜𓅨𓂧𓀉𓄣𓎡𓄱𓋴𓇋𓅱𓈗𓀁𓏶𓏲𓀁𓏏𓐍𓏲𓄣𓇛𓇛𓇛𓇛
𓂺𓁹𓉔𓇳𓄤𓌞𓋴𓄣𓌆𓇳𓐝𓂋𓏏𓂞𓎖𓆇𓅱𓄧𓏏𓀁𓐝𓄣𓏤𓎡𓇋𓐍𓏭𓊃𓆳𓏏𓏦
𓇋𓍿𓏤𓁷𓁶𓇾𓏤𓈇.
[6] For the hieratic text see _Papyrus Ebers_, Plate 56.
[7] Ibid., Plate 87.
[8] These words mean: “If thou wouldst be a perfect man make thou [thy]
son well pleasing to God.”
[9] These words mean: “I have given bread to the famishing, water to the
thirsty, clothes to the naked, and a boat to him that was shipwrecked.”
[10] A recent view makes “papyrus” to be derived from the conjectural
name _pa-p-ior_ “that which is of the river.”
[11] A form of the old Egyptian name UN-NEFER 𓃹𓈖𓄤𓆑𓂋𓀀.
[12] Photographs of this Papyrus have been published by the Trustees of
the British Museum, £2 2_s._ per set.
[13] A full coloured facsimile has been published by the Trustees of the
British Museum, in 37 plates, portfolio, £1 11_s._ 6_d._, half bound £1
16_s._ The Egyptian Text is also issued with an English translation,
etc., 4to., £1 10_s._
[14] Also published by the Trustees of the British Museum; “Facsimiles of
the Papyri of Hunefer, Ȧnhai, Kerasher and Netchemet, with supplementary
text from the Papyrus of Nu,” fol., £2 10_s._
[15] _See_ Note 3 on page 59.
[16] 𓅓𓂝𓇌𓀁𓂋𓏲𓂧𓌗𓂋𓈖𓀁𓀀.
[17] The word =stele=, from the Greek στήλη, means literally an upright
stone, or pillar, or column, which was set up over a grave, like our
tombstone, or in a public place as a memorial of some public event.
[18] The Muḥammadan speaks of his wife as his “house,” and the
determinative to the Egyptian word shows that the ancient Egyptian held
the same idea about his wife as the modern Arab.
[19] See the flint hippopotami, crocodile, cow’s head, fish, etc., in
Table-case M (Third Egyptian Room).
[20] The word “fetish” is derived from the Portuguese _feitiço_, “a
charm.”
[21] From the Precepts of Ptaḥ-ḥetep and the Maxims of Khensu-ḥetep.
[22] The text of this extract reads:
𓅖𓍿𓈖𓏥𓊃𓊪𓊗𓇋𓊪𓈖𓉔𓄿𓂻𓆑𓂋𓊪𓏏𓇯𓉔𓄿𓂻𓆑
𓂋𓇾𓏤𓈇𓉔𓄿𓂻𓆑𓂋𓈗𓊃𓐍𓈖𓂻𓆑
𓍋𓃀𓏏𓎙𓀀𓁐𓏥𓆑𓊃𓐍𓈖𓂻𓆑𓇋𓏏𓆑𓆑𓀭𓊃𓐍𓈖𓂻𓆑𓂞𓏏𓆑𓁐𓆑
𓊃𓐍𓈖𓂻𓆑𓄠𓅱𓀀𓁐𓏥𓆑𓌣𓈖𓏌𓀀𓁐𓏥𓆑𓊃𓐍𓈖𓂻𓆑
𓌻𓂋𓏏𓀀𓁐𓏥𓆑𓊃𓐍𓈖𓂻𓆑𓐍𓈖𓄙𓅓𓋴𓀀𓏥𓆑𓊃𓐍𓈖𓂻𓆑
𓄥𓅱𓀀𓏥𓆑𓊃𓐍𓈖𓂻𓆑𓌻𓂋𓏏𓀀𓁐𓏥𓆑𓁹𓅱𓐍𓏏𓏛𓏥𓈖
𓊃𓊪𓊗𓇋𓊪𓈖𓁶𓏤𓇾𓏤𓈇𓊃𓐍𓈖𓂻𓆑𓂺𓏏𓎛𓈖𓏏𓁐𓆑𓌻𓂋𓏏𓆑
𓂋𓐍𓏏𓏛𓈖𓆑
Grant ye this Sepȧ, he may traverse heaven, he may traverse earth, he may
traverse the waters, he may meet his ancestors, he may meet his father,
he may meet his mother, he may meet his children and his brothers and
sisters, he may meet his friends, he may meet his uncles and aunts, he
may meet his connexions, he may meet his friends who did things for this
Sepȧ upon earth, he may meet his woman [whom] he loved and knew, etc.
[23] In Egyptian, =Shabti= 𓆷𓄿𓃀𓏏𓏭𓀾, or =Ushebti= 𓅱𓈚𓃀𓏏𓏭𓀾, or =Shauabti=
𓆷𓄿𓍯𓄿𓃀𓏏𓏭𓀾, 𓆷𓍯𓃀𓏏𓏭𓀾; in the plural, =Shabtiu=, or =Ushabtiu=.
[24] _E.g._, No. 1031 (389), Bay 27.
[25] Strictly speaking the _serdâb_ is a lofty, vaulted, _subterranean_
chamber, with a large opening in the north side to admit air in the hot
weather.
[26] The word “pyramid” seems to be derived from the Egyptian PEREMUS
𓉐𓂋𓂻𓅓𓅱𓋴𓉐, which probably means “a building with a sloping side.”
[27] The Coptic names are derived from the ancient Egyptian names; thus
“THOTH” is from 𓅝𓏏𓏭𓀭, whose festival was celebrated in that month.
“Choiak” is from the name of the festival _Ḳaḥrȧka_ 𓂓𓏤𓁷𓏤𓂓𓏤𓎱𓇳𓏦, and
so on.
[28] We should naturally expect 𓈚𓈗 to represent the whole period of the
Inundation, and not merely the first two or three weeks of it; and 𓆷𓏏𓇳
cannot originally have referred at all to the period of the Inundation.
This subject, however, is one of difficulty.
[29] A second =Tablet of Abydos=, made for Rameses II, is exhibited in
the Northern Egyptian Gallery, Bay 6, No. 592.
[30] To these may be added the fragment of a stele (now preserved at
Palermo), from which the names of a few of the Predynastic kings of Lower
Egypt have been recovered.
[31] He says: “The Egyptians in the formation of their Great Year had
no regard to the moon. In Greece the Egyptian Year is called ‘cynical’
(dog-like), and in Latin ‘canicular’ because it commences with the rising
of the Canicular or Dog-star, to which is fixed the first day of the
month which the Egyptians called Thoth. Their civil year had but 365
days without any intercalation. Thus with the Egyptians the space of
four years is shorter by one day than the space of four natural years,
and a complete synchronism is only established at the end of 1,461
years.” (Chapter XVIII.) “But of these [eras] the beginnings always take
place on the first day of the month which is called Thoth among the
Egyptians, a day which this present year corresponds to the VIIth day of
the Kalends of July (June 25), whilst a hundred years ago ... this same
day corresponded to the XIIth day of the Kalends of August (July 21), at
which time the Dog-star is wont to rise in Egypt.” (Chapter XXI.)
[32] The name of the king is not given, but Ȧmenemḥāt III must be
referred to.
[33] 𓇓𓏏𓈖𓂋𓐍𓏛 _suten rekh_, “royal kinsman.” The title of “royal
kinsman” was often bestowed upon officials by kings as a reward for
faithful services; Ȧmenemḥāt means that his title was not honorary.
[34] The word _Shasu_ means primarily “robber,” and 𓆷𓇓𓅱𓈉 is the “land
of the robber,” _i.e._, the nomad desert man, who plundered caravans at
every opportunity. Later, _Shasu_ 𓆷𓄿𓇓𓅱𓀀𓁐𓏪, means merely “pastoral desert
tribes.”
[35] It was discovered at Ṣân (Tanis) by Mariette, who had the
inscription copied; the stele was then carefully buried, and it has not
since been seen.
[36] Tell al-Amarna Tablet at Berlin, No. 24.
[37] Full descriptions of all the tablets have been published by the
Trustees of the British Museum, with summaries of the contents and the
texts in =The Tell al-Amarna Tablets in the British Museum=, Autotype
plates, 1892, 8vo. Price 28_s._; and see the =Guide to the Babylonian and
Assyrian Collections=, Second Edition, 1908, pp. 177-192.
[38] _E.g._, 2,756 images of the gods, 113,433 men, 490,386 oxen and
cattle, 1,071,780 aruras of land, 514 vineyards, 160 towns, 71,000
bundles of flax, 6,272,431 loaves of bread, 19,130,032 bundles of
vegetables, 1,933,766 jars of honey, 5,279,552 bushels of corn, etc.
[39] 𓁹𓊨𓀭𓍹𓋹𓈖𓋴𓇳𓄤𓄣𓍺𓐙𓏏𓂝𓁹𓏏𓈖𓇓𓈞𓏏𓅨𓏏𓁶𓊪𓈖𓍛𓏤𓆑
𓍹𓏏𓄿𓆼𓍯𓍿𓍺𓏏𓅐𓋴𓊹𓂧𓏏𓏤𓍹𓋋𓏏𓆇𓇋𓈎𓂋𓍺𓐙︀𓊤.
[40] The hieroglyphic form of her prenomen is 𓍹𓇋𓏠𓈖𓂝𓂋𓇌𓏏𓆇𓍺 and her
nomen was =Kenthȧḥebit= 𓍹𓎡𓈖𓍘𓇋𓎱𓇌𓏏𓆇𓍺, whence, probably, the title
=Candace= is derived. Her tomb is at Meroë (Northern Group of Pyramids,
No. 1).
[41] _I.e._, the portion of the Nile Valley between Syene and
Hierasykaminos, which was 12 _schoeni_ (hence the name), or 70 miles, in
length.
[42] Copies and translations of most of the Greek and Coptic inscriptions
have been published by the Trustees of the British Museum in “=Coptic and
Greek Texts of the Christian Period from Ostraka, Stelae, etc., in the
British Museum=.” With 100 plates. 1905. Foolscap. £2.
[43] The word _Khalîfa_ means “successor,” _i.e._, of the Prophet.
[44] The word _Mamlûk_ means “slave.”
[45] Variants, 𓍹𓆼𓊸𓃝𓆷𓀼𓍺, 𓍹𓆼𓃝𓆷𓈘𓀭𓍺.
INDEX.
Ȧa, 17
Ȧā-ȧb, King, 293
Āa-ȧb-taui-Rā, 293
Ȧāḥ-ḥetep, Queen, 227
Ȧāḥmes I, 115, 153, 227, 228, 287, 294
Ȧāḥmes II, 260, 288, 300
Ȧāḥmes-nefert-Ȧri, 164
Āa-kheper-en-Rā, 294
Āa-kheper-ka-Rā, 294
Āa-kheper-Rā, 299
Āa-kheper-Rā setep-en-Ȧmen (Osorkon IV), 299
Āa-kheper-Rā setep-en-Menthu, 298
Āa-kheperu-Rā, 295
Āamu, 206, 210, 211
Āa-peḥ (Nubti), 225
Āa-peḥ-ti-Set, 294
Āa-qenen-Rā (Ȧpepȧ II), 226, 293
Āasith, goddess, 131
Ȧati, 16
Āa-user-Rā, King, 225
Ȧb-ȧā, King, 223
Abâî, River, 11
Āb-ȧst, 203
ʿAbbâsid Khalîfas, 285
ʿAbd-Allah bin Sa’ad, 283
ʿAbd al-Laṭîf, 162
ʿAbd as-Salâm, 285
Abhat, 73, 232
Abraam, stele of, 284
Abrasax, 282
Abraxas, 282
Ȧbt, 16
Ābu, Elephantine, island of, 1, 16, 85
Abukîr, lake of, 5
Abû Roâsh, pyramids of, 170
Abû-Simbel, temple of, 73, 108, 242
Abû-Ṣîr, 17, 203, 204;
pyramids of, 170
Abydos, 145, 188, 215;
tablets of, 208, 240, 245;
temple of, 240
Abyssinia, 20, 280
Acacia, 89, 138
Achoris, 264
Acrobats, 87
Adam, 165
Adramîya, cataract of, 13
Addresses of Horus, 67
Aegyptus, 4
Ælius Gallus, 275
Ȧfȧ, relief of, 203
Affidavits, Coptic, 284
Africans, 20
Africanus, Julius, 185, 208, 264
Ȧfu-Rā, 66
Agricultural implements, 96
Agriculture, 22, 92
Āḥa, tomb of, 188
Ahnâs, 16, 209
Ȧi, 238, 287, 296
Aiguptos, 4
Akabah, 4
Åkerblad, 44
Akhaemenes, 263
Akhet, season of, 182
Akhmîm, 16, 100, 164
Al-Arîsh, 4
Albert Nyanza, 11
Alexander I the Great, 162, 266, 289, 302
Alexander II, 266, 289, 302
Alexandria, 19, 277, 280;
founded, 266;
patriarch of, 283
Alexandrian Library and Museum, 268
Alexandros, 270
Al-Hîbah, 16
Al-Kâb, 16, 234
Al-Kês, 16
Al-Khârgah, Oasis of, 262, 263
Al-Kusîyah, 16
Al-Lâhûn, 215;
pyramids of, 170, 172
Al-Mâmûn, 201
Alpha, 282, 284
Alphabet, the Egyptian, 49, 50, 270
Altar stands, 101
Altars, stone, 222
Alwa, 283
Āmamu, coffin of, 58, 178
Ȧm-Ȧnnu, 126
Ȧm-Āntchet, 126
Amârah, 73
Amāsis I, 227, 228
Amāsis II, 260;
and see Ȧāḥmes.
Ȧmen, god, 129;
incarnation of, 232;
temple of, founded, 232
Ȧmenȧrṭās, Queen, 115, 256, 257
Ȧmen-Ȧsru, King, 235
Ȧmen-em-ȧnt, stele of, 246
Ȧmen-em-Ȧpt, King, 251, 288;
stele of, 229
Ȧmenemḥāt I, 172, 212, 213, 287, 293;
instructions of, 68, 213
Ȧmenemḥāt II, 172, 214, 215, 287, 293
Ȧmenemḥāt III, 172, 255, 287, 293
Ȧmenemḥāt IV, 219, 287, 293
Ȧmenemḥāt, an official, 215
Ȧmenemḥāt, a royal kinsman, 221
Ȧmen-em-ḥāt, stele of, 238
Ȧmen-em-ḥeb, a scribe, 251
Ȧmen-ḥetep I, 229, 287, 294
Ȧmen-ḥetep II, 153, 231, 232, 255, 287, 295
Ȧmen-ḥetep III, 72, 153, 164, 179, 232-236, 287, 295
Ȧmen-ḥetep IV, 115, 179, 233, 236, 237, 287, 295;
and see Khu-en-Ȧten.
Ȧmen-ḥetep, a high-priest, 250
Ȧmen-ḥetep, an Erpā, 235
Ȧmen-ḥetep, an officer, 232
Ȧmen-ḥetep, a scribe, 261
Ȧmen-ḥetep, son of Ḥāp, 235
Ȧmeni, an official, 214
Ȧmeni, figure of, 221
Ȧmeni, Prince, 219
Ȧmeni, stele of, 221
Ȧmeni, the builder, 217
Ȧmen-men, stele of, 229
Ȧmen-mes, King, 248;
palette of, 55
Ȧmen-meses, 287, 296
Ȧmen-Rā, god, 123, 129, 266;
boat of, 70;
priests of, 226, 238, 251, 252;
temple of, at Karnak, 231;
temple of, at Khârgah, 263;
temple of, at Napata, 257
Ȧmen-Rā-mes, stele of, 248
Ȧmen-ruṭ-meri-Ȧmen, 263, 264
Ȧment, Ȧmentet, 17, 239
Ȧmenṭārit, Queen, 275
Ȧmenti, 139
Ȧm-f-khent, 16
Ȧm-f-peḥ, 16
Ȧm-ḥetch-paār, 126
Ȧm-Ḥet-Serqet, 126
Ȧm-Ḥet-ur-Rā, 126
Ȧm-Khent, 16, 17
Ām-mit, 140, 144
Ȧm-neter-ḥet, 126
Ȧm-peḥ, 16, 17
ʿAmr ibn al-Âṣî, 278
Ȧm-Saḥ, 126
Ȧmset, 123, 161
Ȧmsu, 123, 128, 238;
and see Menu.
Ȧm-Ṭep, 126
Amulets, 53, 100, 179;
list of, 147-150;
pre-dynastic, 148;
Gnostic, 282
Ȧm-Unnu-meḥt, 126
Ȧm-Unnu-resu, 126
Amusements, 84 ff.
Amyrtaios, 263, 264, 289
Ȧn, 203, 287, 291
Anaemia, 73
Ȧnaitis, 248
Anatomy, 32, 72
Ancestors, worship of, 189
Ȧneb-ḥetch, 17
Ȧnebni, statue of, 231
Ȧnhai, papyrus of, 61, 146, 153
Ȧn-ḥer-nekht, 217;
stele of, 221
Ani, maxims of, 146;
papyrus of, 53, 59;
shrine of, 239
Animal food, 82
Ȧnit, 125
Ankarîb, 90
Ānkh amulet, 149
Ȧn-kheft-ka, statue of, 109, 114, 203
Ānkh-f-en-Khensu, 152
Ānkh-ḥaf, 203
Ānkh-ka-en-Rā, 300
Ānkh-kheperu-Rā, 295
Ānkhnes-nefer-ȧb-Rā, sarcophagus of, 260
Ānkh-p-kharṭ, statue of, 262
Ānkh-sen-Ȧmen, Queen, 238
Anna, stele of, 239
Annals of kings, 73
Annihilation of the wicked, 144
Ȧnnu (On, Heliopolis), 17
Ȧnpu (Anubis), 127;
of Sepau, 212;
brother of Batau, 69, 70
Ānqet, 125, 129
Ȧntef (dynasty XI), King, 210
Ȧntef, inscription of, 212, 222
Ȧntef, an official, 73, 210, 212
Ȧntef, a priest, 221
Ȧntef, statue of, 214
Ȧntef (Nub-kheper-Rā), relief of, 226, 292
Ȧntef Uaḥ ānkh, King, 292
Ȧntefȧ, the Erpā, 209, 210, 292
Ȧntef-āa I, 210, 226, 292
Ȧntef-āa II, 292
Ȧntef-āa III, 292
Ȧntef-āa, coffin of, 226;
pyramid of, 226
Ȧntef-Ȧqer-ānkh-khu, 224
Antelope, 82
Ānthȧt, 125, 130, 248
Anthony, St., the Great, 163, 280
Ānthrethȧ, 130
Ānti (myrrh), 21, 211
Antimony, 81
Antinoopolis, 277
Antinous, 277
Antiochus the Great, 270
Ȧntḳes, tablet for offerings of, 207
Antoninus, 279
Antony, 272
Ȧntuf, song of, 75
Anubis (see Ȧnpu), 123, 127
Apachnas, King, 225
Apakene, St., 283
Āpep, 31, 142, 267
Ȧpepȧ I, 218, 225, 293
Ȧpepȧ II, 226, 293
Āpepi, 67
Āpepi, king of Avaris, 74
Apes, dog-headed, 21
Āpesh, 132
Aphroditopolis, 16
Apis Bull, 93, 131, 191, 263
Apis Chapels, 234
Ȧpit, 131
Ȧpni, stele of, 235
Apollinopolis Magna, 16
Apophis, King, 225
Apries (Ḥophra), 259, 300
Apse, 283
Āpshait, 132
Ȧpt, a measure, 98
Ȧpu (Panopolis), 16, 99
Ȧpu, figure of, 238
Ȧp-uat-em-sau-f, King, 224
Ȧqer, stele of, 212
Āqleq, 257
Arab Period, 282
Arabia, 22, 98
Arabic language, spread of, 282
Arabs conquer Egypt, 278
Arch, the elliptical, 103
Archaïc Period, 193
Archangels, the Six, 282
Architecture, 103 ff.
Ȧri, relief of, 203
Ariel, 82, 85
Ȧri-neferu, figure of, 238
Ar-Rafah, 4
Arrows, flint-tipped, 86
Arsaphes, 245
Arsinoë, Queen, 269;
city of, 269
Ȧrsu, 249, 287
Artatama, 232
Artaxerxes I, 263, 288, 301
Artaxerxes II, 266, 301
Artaxerxes III, 266, 288
Artemidorus, mummy of, 163;
stele of, 279
Ȧsȧ-ānkh, 205
Ȧsȧr (Osiris), 124, 127
Ȧsȧr-Ḥāp (Serapis), 124, 268
Ȧset, Queen, 230
Ashmnûnên, 16
Ashur-bani-pal, 257, 258
Ȧspelta, 261
Ass, 95
Ȧssȧ, 68, 87, 203, 204, 287, 291
Assessors, the Forty-two, 141
Assis, 225
Assyria, 97, 257
Assyrians occupy Memphis, 257;
sack Thebes, 258
Ȧst (Isis), 125, 127
Astaboras, 13
Astapos, 11
Astasobas, 13
Ȧst-em-khebit, 253
Āsthȧrethit, 130
Astronomy, 71, 80
Aswân, 16, 18, 285;
the Dam at, 13;
tombs at, 173
Asyûṭ, 16, 18, 139, 209;
Princes of, 208
Ȧta, 189, 286
Āṭȧb, King, 190, 286
Atbara, 13
Ātchȧb, King, 190
Ȧtefthit, 18
Ȧten, the solar disk, 130;
hymn to, 27;
prayers to, 238;
cult and temple of, 237
Ȧtet (dynasty I), 189
Ȧteth, 189, 286
Atfîḥ, 16
Athanasius, 163
Athenians, 263
Ȧthi, 17;
stele of, 214
Athribis, 17, 224, 245
Ȧthu, stele of, 232
Athyr, month of, 183
Ȧtmu, 124
Ȧu-ȧb-Rā, King, 287, 293
Ȧuputh, 253
Autoba, 18
Ȧuuaruath, Prince, 256
Avaris, 74, 225, 228
Ayyûbid Khalîfas, 285
Axe, 178, 188
Axe-handle of Sekhem-uatch-taui-Rā, 223
A-Zandê, 157, 158
Azhar, 285
Ba (Ram-god), 131
Baal, 131, 242
Bâb al-Mandib, 22
Babylonia, 22, 97, 98
Bachis Bull, 93, 131
Back-bone amulet, 149
Bad-Face, 141
Ba-en-neter, 286, 290
Ba-en-Rā-neteru meri, 302
Bagrawîr, 17;
pyramids of, 170
Baḥarîyah, Oasis of, 5
Baḥêrah, 18
Bahnassâ, 16
Baḥr al-Abyaḍ, 11
Baḥr al-Gebel, 11
Baḥr al-Ghazâl, province of, 19, 228
Baḥr Yûsuf, 6
Bāirthȧ (Beltis), 131
Bakāa, stele of, 246
Ba-ka-Rā, 300
Bakenrenf, 256
Baker, 101
Bakha (Bachis Bull), 131
Bakhet, 145
Baḳḳârah, 93
Baḳṭ, 283
Balance, the Great, 140
Balbillus, F. Claudius, 277
Balls, 78
Ban-āa, stele of, 239
Ba-nefer, 53
Bangle, 179
Bankes, Mr., 45
Bantu, 157
Baptism, 281
Bār (Baal), 131, 242
Ba-Rā-meri-en-Ȧmen, 296
Barber, 101
Barges, 102
Barley, 22, 82
Barley-beer, 83
Barrage at Al-Manâshî, 14;
at Asyûṭ, 13;
at Esna, 14
Barter, 98
Barthélemy, 44
Baskets, 99
Basket-weaver, 99
Bas-relief, 110
Bast, 128, 132;
temple of, 254
Batau, brother of Ȧnpu, 69, 70
Batau-ānth, 245
Battle-axe, 121
Ba-ur-ṭeṭ, 204
Beads, 179
Beans, 82
Bear, 85
Beard, the pointed, 21
Bebi, King, 193, 286
Bedsteads, 90
Beer, barley, 83;
honey, 83
Beer-house, 87
Beetle, granite, 273
Beetle amulet, 147
Beetle-god, 132
Begig, 214
Behbît al-Ḥagârah, 265
Behen, 214
Behent, 18
Behenu, relief of, 207
Bekhten, 70
Bekt, 18
Bells, 87, 178
Beltis, 131
Belzoni, 199, 245
Benben, 236
Benha, 18, 245
Beni Hasan, 172
Beni-Suwêf, 18
Bennu, 124, 132
Beon, King, 225
Berber, province of, 19
Berenice, Queen, 270;
city of, 240;
stele of, 274
Berenice Troglodytica, 268
Bêrût, 70, 242
Bes, god, 124, 129
Besh, King, 117, 150, 191, 286, 290
Bêt al-Walî, temple of, 241, 242
Betchau, King, 189, 190, 286, 290
Betchmes, statue of, 114, 195
Bêt Khallâf, 193
Bier, 211
Bier-cloth, 165, 285
Bilâk (Philae), 18
Biography, 73
Birkat al-Ḳurûn, 5
Bîshârî tribes, 20
Bitter Lakes, 5
Bitumen, 158, 162
Blacks, 120;
edict against, 216;
land of, 215
Blacksmith, 100
Blacksmith-god (Ptaḥ), 119
Blemmyes, 20, 277, 278
Block of slaughter, 144
Blood of Isis, 149
Blue Nile, province of, 19
Boat-builder, 101
Boats of different kinds, 102
Bocchoris (Bak-en-ren-f), 256, 288, 299
Body, the material, 155;
the glorified, 143, 155
Boheiric dialect, 35
Bok, 18
Bolt-lock, 91
Bone-setting, 72
Book of Breathings, 62
Book of coming forth by day, 58
Book of Ecclesiasticus, 69
Book of gates, 66, 142;
vignette, 141
Book of “May my name flourish”, 64
Book of Opening the Mouth, 64
Book of overthrowing Āpepi, 67
Book of Proverbs, 69
Book of the Dead, 178;
editing of, 189;
recensions of, 58 ff.
Book of the Two Ways, 65
Book of traversing eternity, 63
Book of what is in the Ṭuat, 66
Books of Magic, 74
Boomerangs, 21, 85, 238
Boôn, 18
Borers, flint, 188
Botany, 72
Boussard, 44, 270
Bow and arrows, 86, 98, 178
Bowls, earthenware, stone, wood, etc., 92, 178
Boxes, 91, 178
Bracelets, 179, 253
Bran, 82
Bread, bread-cakes, 82;
imperishable, 143
Breastplate, 179
Brick, invention of, 103;
brick-making, 22;
brickmaker, 100
Bricks, inscribed, 230, 231
Brugsch, Dr. H., 186
Bubastis, 17, 216, 224, 245;
temple of, 254
Buffoons, 87
Buhen, 121
Buiu-uaua, 253
Bull, Apis, 93, 131, 191;
Bachis, 93, 131;
Mnevis, 93, 131, 191;
of Ȧmen-tet, 93;
worship of, 93
Bûrlûs, lake of, 5
Burraburiyash, letter of, 236
Busiris, 17
Bu-tchamui, 16
Buto, 17, 138, 267;
temple of, 74
Buzzard, 85
Caesar, Julius, 272, 302
Caesarea, 185
Caesarion, 272
Cairo, 19;
Old, 285
Calendar, 32, 270;
year, 184
Calendars, 71;
of lucky and unlucky days, 182
Cambyses, 74, 261, 262, 288, 301
Camel, 95
Canal in First Cataract, 216
Candace, 170, 275, 276
Canopic jars, 160, 177
Canopus, 160, 279;
decree of, 270
Cap, the soldiers’, 120
Caracalla, 277
Cardinal points, 145
Carding instruments, 165
Carians, 258
Caricatures, 112
Carpenter, 100
Carpets, 91
Cartography, 71
Cartonnage cases, 162
Cartouche, 45, 191;
origin of, 117
Cassia, 159
Cat, 78, 132;
hunting, 85
Cat-goddess, 132
Cataract, Canal in the First, 216
Cataracts, the Six on the Nile, 13
Cattle-breeding, 92;
men, 93;
Sûdânî, 92, 93
Cedar oil, 160
Censers, 198
Censorinus, 186
Chairs, 91, 98, 178
Champollion, 45, 270
Chapter of the Heart, 178
Chariot, 121
Cheese, 82
Cheops, 59, 196, 286, 290
Chephren, 171, 199, 232, 287, 290
Cherubs, 165
Chimney, 92
Choiak, season of, 183
Chosroës, 278
Christianity in Egypt, 277;
in Nubia, 280
Christians, persecution of, 277
Chronicles of Africanus and Eusebius, 185
Chronography, 185
Chronology, 71, 184;
systems of, 187
Churches in the Sûdân, 283
Clay sealings, 189
Cleopatra, the Queens, 271, 272, 289, 302
Cleopatra’s Needle, 231
Clepsydra, 266, 267
Clerestory, 273
Clubs, 86
Coffins, classes of, 177, 273
Coinage, 262
Collar, amulet, 149;
gold, 81
Colleges, 79
Colonnade, 105
Colossi, the, 234, 236, 277
Colour-pot, 178
Comb, 91, 178
Cone, 81;
memorial, 223
Confectioner, 101
Confession, 281
Conscience, 149
Constantine, 278
Contracts, Coptic, 284
Cooking-pots, 92
Copper, 98;
mines, 204, 240;
vases, 191
Coppersmith, 100
Coptic, dialects of, 35;
inscriptions, 56;
language, 39, 280
Coptos, 16, 226, 231
Copts, 45;
doctrine of, 280
Corn, export of, 97;
bin, 92;
grinder, 92
Cornelius Gallus, 275
Coronation, stele of, 261
Corvée, the celestial, 151
Cosmogony, 79
Cosseir, 204
Couches, 98, 178
Counters, 178
Court of temple, 105
Cow of Hathor, 262
Cow, worship of, 94
Creation of the gods, 135;
of men, 136;
of the world, 74, 134
Crete, 249
Crocodile amulet, 148;
god, 131;
lake, 5;
mummies, 218;
wax, 71;
worship of in modern times, 85
Cross, the, 164, 280, 284
Crosses, Coptic, 284
Crow, 85
Crown, the White, 189, 190
Crucifixion, 282
Cubit, the little, 98;
the royal, 98
Cucumbers, 82
Cupboards, 91
Curds, 92
Currency, 98
Cush, 20, 214
Cushites, 20
Cylinder seals, 219
Cymbals, 87, 178
Cyprus, 70, 97, 98, 249
Dagger, 120, 178
Dahshûr, 172, 196, 217;
pyramids of, 170
Dailah, Oasis of, 5
Daily Ritual of the Divine Cult, 67
Dakhâlîyah, 18
Dâkhlah, Oasis of, 5
Dakkah, 243, 268, 270
Damanhûr, 18
Damietta, 19
Dance of the god, 87, 204
Dancing, 31, 86;
women, 87
Daphnae, 258
Dâr Fûr, 92
Darius I, 262, 288, 301
Darius II, 263, 288, 301
Darius III, 289
Dates, 82
David, 253;
a monk, 281
Days, lucky and unlucky, 32, 182;
the five epagomenal, 182
Dead, eater of, 140
Death, universal, 274
Decius, 277, 281
De Guignes, 44
Dekans, the Thirty-six, 71, 175
Delta, 4, 5, 138, 140
Demoniacal possession, 70
Demotic writing, 37
Denderah, 16, 207, 230, 268, 272, 273
Dêr al-Baḥarî, temples at, 210, 230;
royal mummies found at, 254
Deserts of Egypt, 6, 7
Destruction of Mankind, 74
Determinatives, 51
Devil, 133
Dhurra, 82
Dialogue between a man and his soul, 28
Dice, 87, 178
Diocletian, 277, 278, 281
Diodorus Siculus, 20, 98, 160, 198, 242
Dioskle, 56
Dioskoros, 56
Diospolis Magna, 17;
Parva, 16
Disk amulet, 150
Doctrine of retribution, 142
Dodekaschoinos, 18, 277
Dog-god, 132
Dog River, 242
Dog-star, 184, 186
Dogs, hunting, 86
Dolls, 78, 101, 178
Dominoes, 87
Dongola, 4, 278;
province of, 19
Door, wooden, 239;
socket, 215
Doomed Prince, story of, 70
Double (KA), 155
Dove, 83, 164
Draughtboards and draughtsmen, 87
Draughts, 87, 178
Dream, stele of the, 258
Dress, 80 ff.
Drum, 87
Drunkard, 88
Duck, 83
Dulgo, 240
Du Theil, 44
Dyer, 101
Dynasties, Arab, 285;
Egyptian, 188, 286
Eagle, 85
Ears, on stele, 239
Eater of the Dead, 140, 144;
of shades, 141
Ebers Papyrus, 72
Ebony, 21, 98;
tablets of Āḥa, 189
Ecclesiasticus, 30
Edfû, 16, 68, 231, 240, 268, 271;
temple of, 104, 270
Edkû, lake of, 5
Education, 78
Egg-plant, 82
Egypt, gods of, 122;
history of, 188 ff.;
land and divisions of, 1 ff.;
peoples of, 20;
population of, 35
Egyptian, decipherment, 41 ff.;
language and writing, 35 ff.;
Travels of an, 70
Egyptians, African origin of, 20;
manners and customs of, 76 ff.
Eiḥannes, 56
Eileithyiaspolis, 16
Elephant, 78, 85, 86;
city, 85;
hunts, 270
Elephantine, city and island of, 1, 16, 85, 173, 206, 215, 216, 258,
277
Embalming, methods of, 158 ff.
Embalmment, ritual of, 64
Embroidery, 164
Enamelling, 100
Enchorial writing, 37
Enemies of Osiris and Rā, 143
Enneads, 123
En-neter, King, 191
Epilepsy, 73
Epiphanes, 39, 44, 270
Epiphi, month of, 183
Equatorial Africa, Negro tribes of, 20
Era of martyrs, 281
Ergamenes, 270
Erpā, 117
Erṭā-Ȧntef-Ṭāṭāu, stele of, 73, 221
Erṭā-en-ānkh, false door of, 207
Esarhaddon, 257
Esna, 4, 5, 92, 231, 268, 272;
church of, 283
Ethiopia, 13, 214
Euergetes I, 39, 269
Euergetes II, 271, 302
Euonymos, stele of, 273
Eupator, 271
Euphrates, 86, 234, 259
Euripides, 56
Eusebius, 185
Eve, 165
Eye amulet, 149;
of Horus, 149;
of Rā, 149;
-paint, 81, 91, 159, 178
Eyes on stele, 239
Exodus, 247
Exports, 97
Fairies, 133
Fakûs, 17
Falcon, 85
False door, 173;
gods, 142;
pyramid, 195
Famine, a seven years’, 166, 193
Famines, 14, 97
Fan, 82, 98
Farâfrah, Oasis of, 5
Farmer, 92
Farmhouse, 89
Fasts, 281
Fâṭimid Khalîfas, 285
Fattening, artificial, 82
Fayyûm, 6, 18, 214, 268, 269;
dialect of, 36;
map of, 71
Feast, funeral, 211
Feather, symbol of Maāt, 140
Feathers, 120
Fellaḥ, 120
Ferry-boat, 102
Festival songs of Isis and Nephthys, 63
Festivals, 281;
of the Nile, 14
Fetishes, 123
Fever, 73
Fiction, 69
Field of Peace, 140, 143;
of Reeds, 140
Figs, 82, 143
Figures, magical, 31
Finger, a measure, 98;
rings, 179
Fingers amulet, 149
Fire, 92;
Lake of, 144;
stick, 92
Fish, 82;
eaters of unclean, 82;
amulet, 148;
gods and goddesses, 133;
hooks, 84;
ponds, 89;
spears, 85
Fishing, 84
Fist, a measure, 98
Flame, 142
Flax, 99, 164
Fleets of Rameses III, 249;
of Nekau, 258
Flints, fire struck from, 92
Flowers, 89
Fluid of life, 117, 223
Flute, 87
Followers of Horus, 139, 153
Food, 82
Forced labour, 152, 153
Forks, 92
Fort St. Julien, 44
Forts, 121
Fosṭâṭ, 285
Foundation deposits, 258
Fowling, 84
Fox, 85
Fractions, 181
Frog amulet, 151
Frontonius, 280
Fruits, 82
Fuel, 92
Furniture, 90, 100
Gabriel, Duke, 279
Gall bladder, god of, 161
Games with counters, 87
Gap, 145
Gardens, 89
Garlic, 82
Gazelle, 82, 85
Gazelle River, 13
Gazîrat al-Malik, 216
Gebel Barkal, 232, 261;
pyramids of, 170
Gebel Dôsha, 216
Gebel Sahaba, 4
Gebel Zâbarâ, 240
Geese, various kinds of, 180
Geography, 71
Geometry, 71
George, St., 165, 284
George the Monk, 185
Gergorios, 57
Germanos, 56
Gharbîyah, 18
Gilukhipa, 233
Giraffe, 86;
river, 13
Girdle, 81;
amulet, 149;
wall, 109
Girgah, 18
Gîzah, 18;
pyramids of, 170, 196
Glass, 100;
glass beads, 179;
glass making, 100;
jug, 231
Glaze for pottery, 194
Gnostic amulets, 282
Gnostics, 282
Goat, 82, 95
God, Egyptian word for, 126
Gods, companies of, 126;
creation of, 135;
dance of the, 204;
enneads of, 123;
number of, 133;
triads of, 123
Gold, brought from the Sûdân, 214, 215;
export of to Assyria, 97, 98;
green, 21;
map of gold mines, 71;
mines, 240;
gold rings, 179;
gold ring-money, 21, 98;
trade in, 234
Goliath beetle, 177
Gondókoro, 4
Goose, 83
Goose-goddess, 132
Granary, 97
Granaries, 217;
of Joseph, 172
Grant of land, 206
Grapes, 82
Grasshopper-god, 132
Graves, predynastic, 165
Gravestones, Kûfî, 285
Great House of the Six, 207
Great House (Pharaoh), 117
Greek language and writings, 39, 268
Greeks, 268;
settle in Naukratis, 258
Green gold, 21
Green water in the Nile, 13
Gulf of Akabah, 4;
of Solum, 4
Ḥa, 16
Ḥā Prince, 118
Ḥāā-ȧb-Rā Uaḥ-ȧb-Rā, King, 259, 300
Hades, god, 268
Hadrian, 277, 281
Ḥaggi Ḳandîl, 237
Hair, modes of wearing, 81
Hairpins, 178
Hair tweezers, 91, 178
Haḳer, King, 264, 289, 301
Ḥalfah Province, 19
Halicarnassus, vase of Xerxes from, 263
Hall, hypostyle, 106
Hall of columns, 106, 243
Ham, 20
Hamites, 20
Ḥammâmât, quarries of, 213, 217
Hand, a measure, 98
Hand drum, 87
Handicrafts, 98
Hânês, 16
Ḥannek Cataract, 13
Ḥāp (Apis Bull), 93, 131, 191
Ḥāp (Ḥāpi), son of Horus, 124, 129, 161
Ḥāp (Ḥāpi), the Nile-god, 9, 124, 127, 254
Ḥāp-men, sarcophagus of, 262
Hare, 85
Harmachis, 236
Harness, 100
Harp, 87
Harper, Song of the, 75
Harpokrates-Ȧmen, 261
Harpoons, 85
Harris Papyrus, No. 1, 28, 74;
No. 500, 74
Ḥarua, figure of, 115
Harvest, 97
Hathor, 108, 125, 128, 205, 214, 239
Ḥātmeḥit, 17
Ḥātshepset, Queen, 21, 102, 107, 179, 230, 287, 295
Ḥau, 16
Ḥawârah, 172, 218;
pyramids, 170
Hawk, 85
Hawk amulet, 149
Hawk-god, 132
Headdress, 81
Head-rest amulet, 149
Hearst Papyrus, 72
Heart, 155;
god of the, 161;
weighed in the balance, 140
Heart amulet, 147
Heart scarab, 177, 179
Heaven, position of, 144
Ḥebennu, 16
Heb-peri, stele of, 207
Ḥebt, city of, 265
Ḥeḥu, 135
Ḥeḥut, 136
Ḥekau, 149
Hêlenê, stele of, 283
Heliopolis, 17, 93, 203, 237, 257;
bull-god of, 191;
high-priest of, 119
Hen measure, 98
Ḥen period, 181
Ḥenbiu-gods, 151
Ḥenna plant, 81
Ḥen-nekht, King, 193, 286, 290
Ḥennu, expedition of, to Punt, 211
Ḥent-taui, Queen, 252
Heptanomis, 15
Ḥep-ur, 9
Ḥeq-āṭ, 17
Ḥeqt, goddess, 150, 212
Ḥer, King, 201, 219, 287, 293
Ḥer-ȧbu, stele of, 273
Heraclius, 278
Herakleopolis Magna, 16, 209, 210, 216, 245;
princes of, 208
Heretic king, 115
Ḥer-Ḥeru, priest-king, 61, 251, 288, 298
Ḥeriu-shā, 213
Ḥer-Khuf in the Sûdân, 95, 206
Hermopolis Magna, 16;
gods of, 135
Hermopolis Minor, 17
Hermonthis, 16, 93, 231
Herodotus quoted, 26, 160, 198, 218
Heron, 85
Ḥeru, an architect, 239
Ḥeru (Horus), 127, 138
Ḥeru, papyrus of, 62
Ḥeru-Beḥuṭet, Wars of, 74
Ḥeru-em-ḥeb, King, 287, 296;
papyrus of, 61, 62;
stele of, 239
Ḥerui, 16
Ḥerukhuti-Kheperȧ-Rā-Temu, the Sphinx-god, 232
Ḥeru-nest (?)-taui (?), King, 293
Ḥeru-netch-tef-f, coffin of, 71
Ḥeru-pa-kharṭ (Harpokrates), 124
Ḥeru-sa-ȧtef, cast of stele of, 74, 261
Ḥeru-shefit, 245
Ḥeruṭāṭāf, 59, 201
Ḥeru-ur, 116
Ḥesbet, 17
Ḥesepti, King, 189
Ḥes-Peṭān-Ȧst, coffin of, 273
Ḥet-Benben, 237
Ḥetchefa, King, 193, 286
Ḥetch-Rā-setep-en-Ȧmen, 299
Ḥetch-kheper-Rā setep-en-Rā, 298
Ḥetep-ḥeres, 177, 198
Ḥetep-neteru, stele of, 224
Ḥetep-Sekhemui, King, 191, 286
Ḥet-Ḥeru (see Hathor), 125, 128
Ḥet-ka-Ptaḥ (Memphis), 4
Ḥet-Khent, 18
Ḥet-suten, 16
Ḥet-ta-ḥer-ȧbt (Athribis), 17
Hezekiah, 257
Hierakonpolis, 16
Hiera Sykaminos, 18, 277
Hieratic writing, 36
Hieroglyphic writing, 36
Hippopotamus, 84, 85, 262;
amulet, 148;
goddesses, 131;
relief of, 211
History, 73;
of Egypt, 188 ff.
Hittites, 73, 239, 241
Hoe, 86
Holy water, 57
Homer, 270
Honey, 72;
used in embalming, 162
Honey-beer, 83
Hooks, fishing, 84
Ḥophra (Apries), 259, 300
Horse, 95, 121
Horus, birth of, 74;
death of, 75;
resurrection of, 75;
followers of, 153;
four sons of, 129
Horus name, 116
Horus of gold name, 116
House of Books, 68
House of Eternity, 166
House-painter, 100
Houses, 88 ff.
Ḥu, King, 190, 286, 290
Ḥui, stelae of, 229
Hu-nefer, papyrus of, 59, 241
Ḥuni, King, 193, 286, 290
Hunting, 84;
cat, 85;
scenes, 195
Hyaena, 85
Hyksos, 218, 223 ff.;
period of, 225
Hymn in praise of learning, 69
Hymnology, 67
Hypselis, 16
Ibex, 85
Ibis, 85
Ibis-god, 132
Ibrîm, 18, 213
Ichneumon-god, 132
Ideographs, 50
I-em-ḥetep, 129, 287, 291
Imports, 97, 98
Inarôs, 263
Incense, 237
India, 98
Ink, 55;
green, 31;
ink-pot, 55
Inlaying, 100
_Institut National_, 44
Instructions of Ȧmen-em-ḥāt I, 68
Intestines, gods of, 161
Inundation of the Nile, cause of, 3;
period of, 165, 183
Ionians, 258
Iron sky, 145
Irrigation works, 218
Isak, 56
Isis, 14, 125, 127, 161;
history of, 138;
temples of, closed, 278;
wanderings of, 75
Islâm, 282
Isos, stele of, 283
Israelites, 74, 247
Issus, battle of, 266
Iuȧa, 233
Iusāaset, 129
Ivory, 21, 189;
carver, 101
Jackal, 85
Jackal-god, 132
Jacob, 160;
the Monophysite, 281
Jacobites, 280
Jah, 282
Jazîrat al-Malik, 121
Jeroboam, 253
Jerusalem, 253
Jewel-boxes, 101
Jeweller, the, 100
Jewellery, 179
Jews, 271;
in Egypt, 268
John, St., church of, 283
John the Deacon, 283
Jonias, King, 225
Joppa, legend of capture of, 74
Joseph, granaries of, 170
Josephus Flavius, 224
Josiah, king of Judah, 258
Judgment, the, 140
Julian the Apostate, 281
Julius Africanus, 185, 208, 264
Julius Caesar, 272, 302
Jupiter Ammon, Oasis of, 5, 262, 266
Justinian, 278
Ka, 155;
Ka-chamber, 155;
Ka-chapel, 169;
Ka-figure of Rameses II, 244;
Ka-priest, 155, 169;
Ka-statues, 177
Kabasos, 17
Kadashman-Bêl (or Kadashman-Enlil), 233, 236
Kadesh, 240, 242
Ka-ḥeseb, 17
Ḳaḥrȧka, 183
Ka-kau, King, 191, 286, 290
Kalâbshah, 241
Ḳalyûbîyah, 18
Ka-meri-Rā, King, 209
Ka-mes, King, 227, 294
Ka-mes, a king’s messenger, 234
Kamesu, figure of, 238
Ka-nefer, stele of, 196
Ka-nekht-khā-em-Uast, King, 256
Ḳanṭarah, 98
Ka-Qam, 17
Kaqemna, Precepts of, 30, 68, 83
Karaduniyash, 233, 236
Karāmā, Queen, 254
Karbaniti, 257
Karei, 234
Karkemish, 259
Karnak, 16, 102, 213;
obelisks of, 230;
temple of, 230, 231 ff.
Kasa, 16
Ka-semt, 17
Kash (Nubia), 214
Kashta, 256, 288, 299
Kassala, province of, 19
Ka-ṭep, statue of, 177, 197
Ḳeb, 124, 128
Ḳebti, 16
Kekui, 136
Kekuit, 136
Kembȧthet, 301
Kemen, stele of, 218
Ḳena, 18, 98, 204
Kent, goddess, 131, 248
Kerasher, papyrus of, 62
Ḳerḥ, 136
Ḳerḥit, 136
Kesem, 17
Kesi, 16
Ḳeṭ, a measure, 98
Key, 91
Khaȧu, 188, 286
Khā-ba, 203
Khabbesha, 263, 301
Khā-em-ḥrȧ, 39
Khā-em-Uast, the magician, figure of, 115, 246
Khā-f-Rā (Chephren), 199, 232, 255, 287, 290
Khā-kau-Rā, King, 293
Khalîfa, meaning of the name, 285
Khalîg Canal, 14
Khā-nefer-Rā (Sebek-ḥetep), 203, 223, 287
Khârgah, Oasis of, 5, 262
Khart-en-Khennu, tablet for offerings of, 207
Kharṭûm, 85, 231, 277;
province of, 19
Khā-Sekhemui, King, 190
Khasut, 17
Khati, King, 209
Khati, Prince of Siut, 209, 291
Khemennu, 16
Khennu, 201
Khensu, 124, 129
Khensu-ḥetep, door of, 239;
Precepts of, 30, 77, 88
Khensu-user, stele of, 211
Khent, King, 189
Khent-ȧbt, 17
Khenti Ȧmenti, 206
Khenti-em-semti, 215
Khenti-em-semt-ur, a priest, 215
Khent-kaut-s, 170
Khent-khat-ur, 215
Kheperȧ, god, 124, 128, 147, 273
Kheper-ka-Rā (Usertsen I), 293
Kheper-ka-Rā (Nektanebos), 302
Kheper-khā-Rā, King, 293
Kheper-kheperu-maāt-ȧri-Rā, 296
Kheper-Maāt-Rā setep-en-Rā, 298
Khephren, see Chephren.
Kherp, pyramid, 215
Kheru-āḥāu, 151
Kheta, 73, 239, 241, 242
Khian, lion of, 225, 226
Khnem-ȧb-Rā, King, 300
Khnem-ȧb-Rā-Men, statue of, 261
Khnem-maāt-Rā, 301
Khnemu, 15, 96, 124, 128, 135, 150, 214;
temple of, 234
Khnemu-ḥetep, 172;
false door of, 205;
stele of, 221
Khu, 156;
stele of, 221
Khu-en-Ȧten (Ȧmen-ḥetep IV), 237, 295
Khu-en-Rā setep-en-Rā, 297
Khufu (Cheops), 59, 72, 78, 196, 201, 255, 286, 290
Khufu-ānkh, sarcophagus of, 198
Khut, 196
Khut-Ȧten, city of, 236, 237
Khu-taui-Rā, King, 293
King, his divinity, 116 f.;
his five names, 117;
his power, 208
King Lists, 71, 185
Kings, cartouches of the, 290;
Tombs of the, 231
Kitchen utensils, 92
Kite, 85
Kneading stone, 92
Knives, 92
Knoumis, 282
Koḥl, 81
Kom Ombo, 279
Kordofân, province of, 19
Korosko, 213
Krôphi, 7
Ḳua-ṭep, Canopic jars of, 161;
coffin of, 86;
pillow of, 91
Kubbân, 18
Kûfî writing, 285;
inscription in, 165
Ḳuft, 16
Kulla, 170
Kummah, 1, 121, 216, 219
Kûrkûr, Oasis of, 5
Ḳurnah, temple of, 240
Kurrû, pyramids of, 170
Kusae, 16
Ḳuṣêr, 21, 98, 204
Kynonpolis, 16
Labyrinth, 218
Ladder amulet, 149
Ladder of heaven, 145
Lake Abukîr, 5
Lake Albert, 11
Lake Albert Edward, 11
Lake Bûrlûs, 5
Lake Edkû, 5
Lake, Fiery, 144
Lake Mareotis, 5
Lake Menzâlah, 5
Lake Moeris, 6, 217
Lake Nô, 11
Lake Ṣânâ, 11
Lake, the Temple, 108
Lake Timsaḥ, 5
Lake Victoria, 11
Lamentations of Isis and Nephthys, 62
Lamp, 91
Land of the Blacks, 215
Land of the Spirits, 204, 206
Lapis-lazuli paste, 98
Lark, 85
Lasso, 86
Latus, 133
Leap-year, 270
Leather-worker, 100
Lebanon, 98
Leeks, 82
Legal documents, 75
Legends, mythological, 74
Lêlat al-Nuḳtah, 14
Lentils, 82
Leopard, 85;
skins, 21
Lepidotus, 133
Letopolis, 17
Letters, Coptic, 284
Libation bowl, 262;
tank, 207
Library, Alexandrian, 268
Library, the Temple, 106
Libya, 247
Libyans, 20
Life amulet, 149;
fluid of, 117, 223;
tree of, 143
Lighters, 102
Linen, 80;
export of, 97;
weavers of, 99
Linen mummy swathings, inscribed, 178
Linenwork, 285
Linnet, 85
Lion, 85;
gods, 132;
hunts, 232;
the Hyksos, 226
Lions, red granite, 235
Lisht, pyramids of, 170, 172, 213
Litany of Osiris, 67
Litanies of Seker, 63
Liturgy, 283
Liturgy of funerary offerings, 65
Liver, god of, 161
Lock, 91
Loin cloth, 21, 81
Long-strider, 141
Lotus, 130
Lungs, god of, 161
Lute, 87
Luxor, temple of, 16, 243
Lykopolis, 16
Lynx, 85
Lynx-goddess, 132
Maā-kheru-Rā, King, 293
Maā-Rā-ur-neferu, Hittite princess, 242
Maamet, 18
Maāt, the goddess, 125, 130;
the divine plant, 143, 151;
symbol of, 153
Maāti goddesses, 150
Maāt-en-Rā, King, 293
Maāt-ka-Rā (Ḥātshepset), 295
Maāt-ka-Rā, Princess, 252
Maāt-ka-Rā, wife of Osorkon I, 254
Maāt-khā, 201
Madînat al-Fayyûm, 18
Madînat Habû, 105, 230;
temple of, 249
Maeotes, 133
Mafṭet, 132
Magic, books of, 74
Magical figures, 151, 152
Magicians, stories of, 71
Ma-ḥes, 131
Maḥetch, 16
Māḥu, figure of, 248;
statue of, 119;
stele of, 239
Mȧi-sherȧui, 78
Mait, 212
Mamlûks, Baḥrite, 285;
Circassian, 285
Man, Creation of, 135, 136
Man-god, 129, 153
Mañbattu, 157
Manetho, King List of, 185, 190, 208, 222, 264, 269
Mankind, Destruction of, 74
Manṣûrah, 18
Mantis-god, 132
Manu, 145
Manûfîyah, 18
Marcianus, 278
Marcus Aurelius, 277
Marea, 258
Mareotis, lake of, 5
Mark, St., 277, 279
Marriage, 76;
contracts of, 75
Martyrs, Era of, 281
Maruat, 17
Mary, stele of, 284
Masaherth, 251
Maṣṭaba tomb, 167, 194
Master of the robes, 221
Matar, 15
Maṭarîyah, 17
Mātchaiu, 213
Maten, 16
Mats, 98, 99
Matthaios, a priest, 56
Matting, 99
Meae, 18
Measures, 98
Meat, eaters of raw, 261
Mechir, month of, 183
Medicine, 32, 72;
book of, 190
Mediterranean Sea, 97
Mêdûm, pyramid of, 195, 203, 218
Megiddo, 230, 258
Meḥit, 18
Meḥt-en-usekht, 253
Meḥ-urit, 130
Mekha, 188, 286
Mekhu, 207
Mekkah, 285
Melkites, 281
Memnon, 232;
the vocal, 234
Memnonium, 234, 242
Memphis, 17, 93, 206, 213, 225;
council of, 44;
decree of, 270;
founding of, 189;
government removed from, 209;
high-priest of, 119;
occupied by Assyrians, 257;
by Persians, 261
Menȧ (Menes), 185, 188, 286, 290
Men-ȧst, 204
Menȧt amulet, 236
Menāt-birds, 181
Mendes, 17;
kings of, 264;
ram of, 191
Menelaus, 160
Menephthah I (see Mer-en-Ptaḥ), 234
Menes, 185, 188, 286, 290
Menḥet, 125
Men-ka-Rā, King, 208
Men-kau-Ḥeru, King, 203, 287, 291
Men-kau-Rā (Mykerinos), 59, 200, 87, 290
Men-kheper-Rā (dynasty XVIII), 295
Men-kheper-Rā (dynasty XXI), 251, 288, 300
Men-kheperu-Rā, 295
Men-maāt-Rā (Seti I), 296
Men-maāt-Rā setep-en-Rā, 298
Men-mȧ-Rā setep-en-Rā, 296
Men-peḥtet-Rā, 296
Men-nefert, 17
Menruil, 129
Menthu, 130, 242;
temple of, 234
Menthu-āa, statue of, 212
Menthu-ḥetep I, 210, 287, 292
Menthu-ḥetep II, 210, 287, 292
Menthu-ḥetep III, 210, 287, 292
Menthu-ḥetep IV, 210, 287, 292
Menthu-ḥetep V, 210, 287, 292
Menthu-ḥetep VI, 287
Menthu-ḥetep VII, 287
Menthu-ḥetep, coffin of, 58;
an official, 211;
a prince, 211
Menthu-Rā, 124, 231
Menti, 93
Menu (Ȧmsu), 123, 128, 238, 248
Menûf, 18
Menu-Nefer, stele of, 215
Menzâlah, lake of, 5
Mer-ānkh-Rā, 292
Merawi (Napata, or Gebel Barkal), 1
Merbapen, King, 190, 290
Mer-en-Ḥeru, King, 208
Mer-en-Ptaḥ I, 247, 296
Mer-en-Ptaḥ II, 218, 297
Mer-en-Ptaḥ ḥetep-ḥer-Maāt, 296
Mer-en-Rā I, 205, 287, 291
Mer-en-Rā II, 205, 287, 291
Meri-mes, prince of Cush, 234
Meri-Rā (Pepi I), 205, 292
Meroë, island of, 1, 17, 275
Meroïtic inscriptions, 277;
kingdom, 275
Merpeba, 190, 286, 290
Mer-seḳer, Queen, 224
Mer-shesu-Ḥeru, stele of, 211
Mert, 125, 212
Mert-tefs, 196
Merul, 129
Mer-ur (Mnevis Bull), 94, 131, 213
Mes, a KA-priest, 248
Meskhenit, 130
Mesopotamia, 86, 103
Mesore, month of, 183
Messnȧu, stele of, 231
Mesthȧ, 129, 161
Mesuth-Rā, 288, 301
Metal-caster, 101
Metal-working, 22, 191
Metelis, 17
Metternich stele, 75
Military service, 119
Milk, 82
Millet, 82
Minyah, 18
Mirror, 82, 178
Mitani, 232, 233, 236
Mît-Rahînah, 17
Mizraim, 20
Mnevis, Bull, 93, 131, 191, 213
Moeris, Lake, 6, 217
Monasteries, 280
Money, stamped, 98
Mongalla, province of, 19
Monkeys, 21
Monophysites, 280
Monotheism, 134
Month, the calendar, 181
Months, the twelve, 182
Moon amulet, 149
Môphi, 7
Moral aphorisms, 75
Mother Isis, 149
Mother, power of the, 77
Muḥammad the Prophet, 278
Mu-Ḥāpi, 7
Mulberries, 82
Mummies, the royal, 252
Mummification, dynastic, 154, 159, 160;
predynastic, 161
Mummy, 158;
chamber, 169;
portraits, 162;
swathings, 164
Museum, Alexandrian, 268
Music, 31
Muslims, 282
Mut, goddess, 125, 129, 232, 253, 277;
temple of, 234
Mut-em-uȧa, Queen, 232
Mut-ḥetep, papyrus of, 61
Mut-Nefert, Queen, 230
Mu-ur (Moeris), 217
Mykerinos, 200, 287, 290
Myrrh, 21, 98, 159, 211
Nahr al-Kalb, 242
Naifaauruṭ I, 264, 289, 301
Nails, stained with ḥenna, 81
Nakhal (Nile), 9
Name, 78
Name-day, 78
Name, the good, 207
Names, magical, 31
N-Ȧntef-ȧqer, prayer of, 212
Napata, 1, 17, 229, 232, 235, 255, 257, 261, 276
Napoleon, 44
Napt (Napata), 17
Nār-mer, 189, 191
Narses, 278
Nȧstasen, stele of, 74
Natron Lakes, 5
Naukratis, 258, 259
Navy, 121
Nebȧ, stele of, 224
Neb-ḥap-Rā I, 84, 110, 111, 210, 229, 230, 292
Neb-ḥap-Rā II, 210, 292
Nebka-Rā, 286
Neb-khāu, King, 203
Neb-kheperu-Rā, 296
Neb-maāt-Rā, 295
Neb-peḥti-Rā, 294
Nebpu-Usertsen, stele of, 218
Nebseni, papyrus of, 53, 59, 146
Neb-taui-Rā, King, 210, 292
Nebt-ḥet (Nephthys), 125, 127
Nebti name, 116
Nebuchadnezzar II, 259, 260
Necho, 258, 288, 300
Necklaces, 179
Nefer amulet, 149;
pyramid, 204;
stele of, 214
Nefer-Ȧbt, 17
Nefer-Ȧment, 17
Nefer-ȧri, figure of, 224
Nefer-ȧri-ka-Rā, King, 201, 203, 287
Nefer-ȧri-ka-Rā (dynasty VIII), King, 208
Nefer-ḥāt, stele of, 232
Nefer-hi, statue of, 114
Nefer-ḥrȧ, statue of, 246
Nefer-ka Ḥeru, King, 208
Nefer-ka-Rā (dynasty II), 193, 286
Nefer-ka-Rā (dynasty III), 286, 290
Nefer-ka-Rā (dynasty VIII), 208
Nefer-ka-Rā (Ḥuni), 193
Nefer-ka-Rā (Pepi II), 205, 206, 287, 291
Nefer-ka-Rā (Shabaka), 300
Nefer-ka-Rā Khenṭu, King, 208
Nefer-ka-Rā Nebi, King, 208
Nefer-ka-Rā Pepi senb, King, 208
Nefer-ka-Rā Tererl, King, 208
Nefer-ka-Seker, 193, 286
Nefer-kau-Ḥeru, King, 208
Nefer-Kau-Rā, King, 208
Nefer-kau-Rā setep-en-Rā, 298
Nefer-kheper-Rā-uā-en-Rā, 295
Nefer-renpit, stele of, 239
Nefer-Sennȧ, 207
Nefert-ȧri, head of figure of, 229
Nefer-Tem, 124, 130
Nefertith, Queen of Ȧmen-ḥetep IV, 238, 295
Nefert-ithȧ, 229
Nefert-tu, stele of, 212
Negative Confession, 141
Nehȧu, 18
Neheb, 188, 286
Neilos, 9
Neith, 126, 128, 136, 161, 258;
shrine of, 262
Neka-ānkh, 205
Nekau, King, 258, 288, 300
Nekau, governor of Saïs, 258
Nekheb, 16, 205
Nekhebit, 125, 128, 191
Nekht, King, 190, 290;
papyrus of, 53
Nekhtȧ, stele of, 221
Nekht-Ȧmsu, figure of, 238
Nekht-Ḥeru-ḥebt, 264, 265, 289, 301;
sarcophagus of, 66
Nekht Menu, figure of, 238
Nekht-neb-f, 266, 302
Nekht-neb-ṭep-nefer, King, 210, 287
Nektanebês, 264, 289, 301
Nektanebos, 264, 289, 302
Nemareth, 253;
bracelets of, 179
Nemmes bandlet, 199
Neolithic Period, 188
Nepherites, 264
Nephthys, 125, 127, 161
Nero, 277, 279
Nes-Ȧmsu, bowl of, 256;
papyrus of, 267
Nes-Ba-neb-Ṭeṭ, 288, 298
Nesi-Khensu, 252
Nes-Qeṭiu, sarcophagus of, 262
Nessu-ba-neb-Ṭeṭ, 251
Net (Neith), 126, 128
Netchem, stele of, 231
Netchemet, 252;
papyrus of, 61
Neter-baiu, 286, 290
Neter-en, King, 191
Neter-ka-Rā, King, 208
Neterui amulet, 150
Nets, fishing, 84
Nî, 234
Night of the Drop, 14;
of the Tear, 14
Nile, the river, course of, altered, 189;
described, 7 ff.;
festivals, 14;
gods of, 8, 9;
inundation of, 13;
length of, 11;
levels, 218;
tributaries of, 13
Nile, Blue, 11
Nile, Upper, 11
Nile, Victoria, 11
Nile, White, 11
Nile boils, 73
Nile, Red Sea Canal, 258, 263
Nilus, 9
N-ka-Rā, King, 208
Nit-Ȧqert, high-priestess, 260
Nitokris, 260
Nitria, 280
Noa, 18
Nobadae, 277, 278, 283
Nome gods, list of, 16, 17
Nomes of Egypt, list of, 16, 17
Nu, 127;
papyrus of, 53, 59
Nûba, 18
Nûbî, 283
Nubia, 20, 214, 229, 234, 280;
invaded by Arabs, 283;
by Romans, 275;
kings of, 253
Nubians, 20;
funeral customs of, 276
Nub-kau-Rā, 293
Nub-kheper-Rā, 292
Nubti, 225, 294
Numbers, 180
Nunneries, 280
Nûrî, pyramids of, 170
Nut, 126, 128
Nut-ent-bȧk, 16
Nyam-Nyam, 157
Oases, the seven, 5, 140;
Christianity in, 280
Obelisk from Sinai, 222
Obelisk, the, 231
Obelisks, 105, 107, 214, 230
Obelisks of Nekht-Ḥeru-ḥebt, 265
Octavianus, 272
Offerings, Canonical list of, 90;
tablet for, 207, 222
Oil, 72
Oils, 82, 178
Omar, Khalîfa, 278
ʿOmayyad Khalîfas, 285
Omega, 282, 284
On (Heliopolis), city of, 17, 126, 145
One embracing All, 282
Oneness of God, 134, 237
Onias, 271
Onion, city of, 271
Onions, 82
Onnos, 205
Opening the Mouth, ceremony of, represented, 239
Ophthalmia, 73
Ornaments, 80 ff.
Orontes, 240, 242
Oryx, 85;
amulet, 148
Osiris, 14, 27, 123, 127;
enemies of, 143;
history of, 138;
kingdom of, 140;
resurrection of, 74
Osiris-Apis, 268
Osiris Christ, 282
Osiris-Khenti-Ȧmenti, 239
Osorkon I, 254, 288, 298
Osorkon II, 254, 288, 298
Osorkon III, 255, 288, 299
Osorkon IV, 288, 299
Ostraka, 56, 279
Ostrich feathers, 98
Osymandyas, 242
Other World, 144, 145, 208;
Book of the, 66
Ouanafre, 57
Ounaref, 56
Ox, 82
Oxen, 94
Oxyrhynchus, 16, 280;
the fish, 133
Pa-Aḥu-neb-Ȧment, 17
Pa-ȧri, tomb of, 234
Pa-Ȧsȧr, 17
Paāsh-birds, 181
Pa-Ba-neb-Ṭeṭ, 17
Pa-Bast, 17
Pachomius, 280
Pachons, month of, 183
Paḥeri, 134
Paḥomo, stele of, 283
Pai, stele of, 251
Paiānkh, 251, 288
Pai-neḥsi, stele of, 224
Painetchem I, 251, 288
Painetchem II, 251, 288
Painetchem III, 251
Pa-Khen-en-Ȧmen, 17
Palaeolithic Period, 188
P-ȧlek, 18
Palermo, stele of, 185, 188, 195
Palestine, 70, 239, 240, 253
Palette, 53, 178
Pallas, 57
Palm, a measure, 98
Palm-tree, 89
Pamȧi, 288, 299
Pa-Mātchet, 16
Pa-mer-ȧḥau, 45;
figure of, 248
Pa-neb-Ȧmt, 17
Pa-Nebset, 18
Paneḥsi, statue of, 246
Panopolis, 16, 100, 164, 280, 284
Panther, 85
Pantheism, 133
Paoni, month of, 14
Paophi, month of, 183
Papremis, 263
Papyri, painted, 110
Papyrus, the plant, 53;
amulet, 149;
cases for the dead, 162;
export of, 98
Papyrus Abbott, 250
Papyrus D’Orbiney, 248
Papyrus Harris, 250
Papyrus Mathematical, 225
Papyrus Prisse, 193
Parchment, 100
Pa-ren-nefer, stele of, 229
Pasebkhānut I, 251, 288, 298
Pasebkhānut II, 251, 288, 298
Paser, figure of, 246
Pa-ser, a chief mason, 248
Pa-ser, statue of, 235
Pasheṭ, hymn of, to Reshpu, 239;
stele of, 238
Pa-sheṭ, stele of, 229
Pa-suten-sa, shrine of, 218
Paṭ-birds, 181
Pa-Teḥuti, 17
Pa-Tem, Pa Temu, 17, 243
Patumos, 17
Pa-Uatchet, 17
Paul the Anchorite, 280
Pavilion, 249
Payni, month of, 183
Peas, 82
Pectoral, 178, 179
Pefā-Net, statue of, 260
Peḥ-Qennes, 17
Peka, 145
Pekhth, 132
Pelican, 85
Pelusium, 258, 261
Penȧ, false door of, 207
Pendants, 179
Penta-urt, poem of, 74, 242
Pepi I, 287, 291
Pepi II, 287, 291
Pepi-nekht, 30, 78, 207
Per-āa (Pharaoh), 117
Perȧbsen, King, 191, 193, 286, 290
Per-em-hru, 58
Per-em-us, 170
Persia, 86
Persians, 261, 278;
in Egypt, 262, 263
Pert, season of, 182
Pertinax, 279
Pesesh-Kef amulet, 150
Pet names, 78
Peṭā-Ȧmen-ȧpt, tomb of, 176
Peṭā-Bast, King, 31, 255, 288, 299
Peṭā-Bast, an official, stele of, 274
Peten-Ḥeru, 18
Pe-Ṭep, 267
Peter, deacon, 283
Phagrus fish, 133
Phakussa, 17
Phamenoth, month of, 183
Pharaoh, friend of, 200
Pharaoh Ḥophra, 153, 259
Pharaoh, meaning of the title, 117
Pharaoh Necho, 258
Pharaoh’s Bed, 276
Pharmuthi, month of, 183
Pharos, 269
Pharsalia, battle, 272
Philadelphus, 268, 302
Philae, island of, 7, 108, 214, 266, 268, 272, 275;
obelisk of, 45
Philip Arrhidaeus, 266, 289, 302
Philistia, 249
Philometor, 271
Philopator, 270
Phoenicia, 97
Phoenissae, 56
Phoenix, 132
Phoenix Period, 182
Physician, 101
Piānkhi, 255, 275, 288, 299;
invades Egypt, 253;
stele of, 74
Piānkhi Seneferef-Rā, 164
Pibeseth, 17
Pig, 82, 95
Pigeon, 83, 85
Pilaster, 108
Pillar, 108
Pillar-altar, 279
Pillars of the sky, 145
Pillow, 91, 98, 178
Pillow amulet, 149
Pi-Menth, 261
Pit of the tomb, 169
Pithom, 17, 243
Pithom, recorder of, 255
Planets, lists of, 71
Plague, 178
Plates, 92
Plêïnôs, stele of, 281
Plough, 96
Plumes amulet, 150
Plutarch quoted, 138
Pnups, 18
Poetry, 75
Politta, stele of, 279
Polygamy, 76
Polytheism, 133
Pomades, 82
Pomegranates, 82
Pompey, 272
Pontyris, 18
Porcelain, Egyptian, 100
Portico, 104
Portrait figures, 113
Portraits, 162
Port Sa’îd, 19
Potter, 98
Potter’s Wheel, 98, 135
Precepts of Ptaḥ-ḥetep, 68;
of Kaqemna, 68
Prescriptions, medical, 72
Priesthood, the, 119
Priest-kings, the, 251
Priests of Ȧmen-Rā, 229
Prisse papyrus, 193
Prison pyramid, 206
Proverbs, 30
Psammetichus I, 153, 258, 288, 300
Psammetichus II, 259, 288, 300
Psammetichus III, 261, 288, 300
Psamut, 264, 289, 301
Psemthek I, 258, 288, 300
Psemthek II, 259, 288, 300
Psemthek III, 261, 288, 300
P-shere-en-Ptaḥ, 274
Ptaḥ, 68, 124, 128;
temple of, at Memphis, 245
Ptaḥ-em-uȧa, stele of, 246
Ptaḥ-ḥetep, false door of, 207
Ptaḥ-ḥetep, precepts of, 30, 68, 77, 84
Ptaḥ-māi, stele of, 238
Ptaḥ-mes, stele of, 248
Ptaḥ-Nefert, 218
Ptaḥ-Sānkh, stele of, 224
Ptaḥ-Seker, 124
Ptaḥ-Seker-Ȧsȧr figures, 153
Ptaḥ-shepses, 73, 201
Ptaḥ-Socharis-Osiris, 153
Ptolemaïc Period, 268
Ptolemy I, Lagus, Soter, 266, 268, 289;
Decree of, 74
Ptolemy II, Philadelphus, 185, 268, 289
Ptolemy III, Euergetes I, 97, 179, 268, 289
Ptolemy IV, Philopator, 269, 289
Ptolemy V, Epiphanes, 236, 270, 289
Ptolemy VI, Eupator, 271, 289
Ptolemy VII, Philometor, 271, 289
Ptolemy VIII, 271, 289
Ptolemy IX, Euergetes, 271, 289
Ptolemy X, 272, 289
Ptolemy XI, 272, 289
Ptolemy XII, 272, 289
Ptolemy XIII, 272, 289
Ptolemy XIV, 272, 289
Ptolemy XV, 272, 289
Ptolemy XVI, 272, 289
Pumice-stone, 91
Pumpkins, 82
Punishment, everlasting, 144
Punt, 20, 21, 98, 204, 206;
expeditions to, 211, 215, 230
Punts, 101
Purgatory, 144
Pygmies, 87
Pygmy, 204, 206
Pylon, 105, 106
Pyramid, Ȧntef-āa, 226
Pyramid, False, 195
Pyramid, Great, 196, 197
Pyramid, meaning of the word, 170
Pyramid, Mêdûm, 195
Pyramid, Prison, 206
Pyramids of Gîzah, 196;
miniature, 239
Qā, King, 190;
pyramid, 213
Qā-ȧb-Rā setep-en-Ȧmen, 302
Qaḥa, stele of, 239, 248
Qarta, false door of, 206
Qebḥ, King, 190, 286, 290
Qebḥsennuf, 124, 129, 161
Qeḥet, 212
Qem, or Qemt, 4
Qen-nefer, figure of, 239;
statue of, 118
Qer-Ḥāpi, 7
Qerti, 141
Qeṭesh, 125, 130
Qeṭesh, relief of, 246
Quail, 85
Queen, her titles, 117
Rā, 128;
enemies of, 143;
poisoning of, 74;
worship of, 203
Rā-ȧri-en-Maāt, 302
Rachel, 283
Radassîyah, temple of, 240
Radishes, 82
Rafts, 102
Rā-Harmakhis, 124, 199
Rā-Ḥeru-Khu, 124
Rā-Ḥetep, King, 224
Rā-ḥetep of Mêdûm, 78, 111;
relief of, 203
Rā-ka-meri, King, 292
Ram of Ȧmen, 96;
of Khnemu, 96;
of Mendes, 191
Ram-god, 131
Rā-maāt-neb-meri Ȧmen, 297
Rā-meri (Pepi I), 205, 206
Rā-meri-ȧb, 291
Rā-meri-Ȧmen, 301
Rameses I, 239, 287, 296
Rameses II, 98, 218, 241-245, 252, 287, 296;
King List of, 185
Rameses III, 153, 249, 250, 288, 297
Rameses IV, 250, 288, 297
Rameses V, 153, 250, 288, 297
Rameses VI, 250, 288, 297
Rameses VII, 250, 288, 297
Rameses VIII, 250, 288, 297
Rameses IX, 250, 288, 297
Rameses X, 250, 288, 298
Rameses XI, 250, 288, 298
Rameses XII, 250, 288, 298
Ramesseum, 242, 243
Rā-neb, King, 191
Rā-nefer-tem-khu, 300
Raphia, battle of, 270
Rā-sekhent-en, 294
Rā-seshesh-ȧpu-maāt, 292
Rā-seshesh-her-ḥer-maāt, 292
Reaping, 97
Rebecca, 283
Recognition of friends in the Ṭuat, 146
Red Sea—Nile route, 98;
province of, 19
Reed-pens, 55
Reed pipe, 87
Reels, 165
Remmosh, 57
Renaissance, 115, 261
Renenet, 126, 130
Repentance, 142
Rerit, 131
Reservoir, 217
Reshpu, 124, 131, 239, 248
Re-stau, 141
Resurrection, the, 139;
amulet of, 150
Rhind Papyrus, 71
Rhinoceros, 86
Rhinocolura, 4
Righteous, rewards of, 142;
spirits and souls of, 143
Ring-money, 21, 98
Rings, finger, 179
Ritual of Embalmment, 64
River of Egypt, 9
River of the Ṭuat, 145
Rock-salt, 83
Romances, historical, 74
Rome, 270
Roof, portion of stone, 207
Ropes, 99
Rosetta Stone, 41, 270
Rosetta, temple of, 258
Rouge, 81
Royalists, 281
Rui, figure of, 248
Rumā, stele of, 241
Rutchek, a libationer, 200
Ṣâ (Tanis), 17
Sa, the, 198
Sāa-ka-nekht-kheperu-Rā, 295
Sa-Ȧmen, King, 251, 288
Sa-Ȧnḥer, stele of, 221
Sa ānkh, 223
Sabaco, 256, 288, 300
Sabben, 207
Sabina, Empress, 277
Sabinus, 279
Sacrifices, 237
Saddênga, 234
Sâḥal, island of, 14, 193
Sa-Hathor, stele of, 215
Sahidic dialect, 35
Sāḥu, 155
Saḥu-Rā, King, 201, 203, 287, 291
Sailor, the shipwrecked, 70
Saïs, 17, 136, 145, 256, 262;
kings of, 258, 264
Saïte Period, 261
Ṣaḳḳârah, pyramids and maṣṭabas of, 166, 170, 205;
step pyramid of, 193;
tablet of, 185
Salatis, King, 225
Salt, 83
Salted bodies, 161
Salûḳî dog, 86
Sam-Beḥuṭet, 17
Sa-Menthu, an official, 73
Sa-Menthu, a scribe, 215
Sa-Menthu, stele of, 211
Sammanûd, 17
Ṣân, 17;
sphinxes of, 218
Sandals, 81, 99, 143, 178
Sa-Nehat, 70
Sanekht, 286
Sānkh-ȧb-taui, King, 210
Sānkh-ka-Rā, King, 210, 292
Sānkh-taui, 223
Sapalul, 239
Sȧpi Meḥt, 17
Sȧpi-Rest, 17
Sa-Ptaḥ Mer-en-Ptaḥ, 248, 287, 297
Sara, 283
Sarâbît al-Khâdim, antiquities from, 195, 214, 215, 217, 222, 245
Sarcophagi, classes of, 177
Sa-Renput, statue of, 215, 216
Sargon, 256
Sa-ta, 132
Satet, 126
Sati, 214
Satit, 129
Satiu, 213
Saut, 16, 17
Scales, 98
Scales, the Great, 140
Scarab amulet, 147
Scarab, the heart, 177
Scarab, with human face, 223
Scarabs, 207, 220, 226, 233;
necklace of, 179
Scents, 82
Sceptre, 178
School exercises, 79
Schools, 79
Science, 71
Scorpion-god, 132
Scorpion-goddesses, the Seven, 75
Scrapers, flint, 188
Scribe, figure of the, 203
Scribe of the gods, 140
Scribes, power of the, 79;
royal, 119
Seal, Solomon’s, 282
Sea power, 249
Seasons, the three, 182
Seb, 124, 128
Sebek, 124, 131, 218
Sebek-āa, stele of, 111, 211
Sebek-āāiu, stele of, 221
Sebek-em-sa-f, King, 223
Sebekemsaf, scarab of, 179
Sebek-ḥer-ḥeb, stele of, 218
Sebek-ḥetep, cone of, 223;
stele of, 216, 217
Sebek-ḥetep, scribe of the wine-cellar, 239
Sebek-ḥetep Khā-nefer-Rā, King, 223
Sebek-ḥetep Sekhem-uatch-taui-Rā, 223
Sebek-ka-Rā, 287, 291
Sebek-neferu-Rā, 287, 293
Sebek-neferut-Rā, cylinder seal of, 219
Sebek-nekht, statue of, 111
Sebek-unnu, 214
Sebennytus, 17, 264, 266
Sebta, figure of, 119, 248
Second birth, 150
Sefekh-ābui, 126
Se-her-ȧb-Rā, 299
Seḥetep-ȧb, 211
Seḥetep-ȧb, stele of, 215
Seḥetep-ȧb-Rā, 292
Seka, 188, 286
Seker, 65, 125, 129, 153
Sekhem, 17, 156
Sekhem-ȧb, King, 191
Sekhem-ka-Rā, King, 223
Sekhem-kheper-Rā setep-en-Rā, 298
Sekhem-khu-taui-Rā, King, 224
Sekhem-uatch-taui-Rā, statue of, 115, 223
Sekhent-neb-Rā, 294
Sekhet, 126, 130, 253;
statues of, 234
Sekhet-Ȧaru, 140
Sekhet-ḥetep, 140
Sem priest, 246
Semempses, 190, 205
Semliki River, 11
Semnah, 1, 121, 216;
temple of, 257
Semsu, 190, 290
Semti, 59, 189, 193, 286, 290
Sen, King, 190, 286
Sen, coffin of, 66
Sen-ȧtef, stele of, 215
Senb, tablet for offerings of, 207
Seneferȧb-Rā, 219
Senefer-Ra, King, 208
Senefer-ka Ȧnnu, King, 208
Seneferu, 193, 195, 208, 286, 290
Seneferu, an official, 215
Seneferu, stele of, 215
Senen-en-Ptaḥ Tanen-setep-en, 301
Senmut, architect, 230
Sennaar, province of, 19
Sennacherib, 256
Sennu, false door of, 207
Senṭ, King, 191, 192, 286
Senṭȧ, King, 191, 192, 290
Sepȧ, coffin of, 146
Sepau, 212
Sepṭ, 16, 17, 184
Septimius Severus, 234, 277
Septuagint, 269
Sepulchral stelae, 68
Seqenen-Rā I Tau-āa, 226, 294
Seqenen-Rā II Tau-āa-āa, 226, 294
Seqenen-Rā III Tau-āa-qen, 226, 294
Serapeum, 258
Seraphim, 165
Serapis, 268, 272, 279
Serdâb, 169
Serpent amulet, 150;
stone, 273;
talking, 70
Serqet, 126, 161
Service books, 67
Seshesh, 16
Seshesh-kheper-Rā setep-en-Rā, 299
Sesheta, 126, 130
Sesostris (Rameses II), 241
Sesostris (Usertsen II), 215
Set, 16, 95, 125, 127, 138, 225
Set-name, 191
Seṭ-period, 181
Setau, coffin of, 251
Setau, stele of, 246
Setches, King, 193, 286
Setep-en-Rā meri Ȧmen (Philip), 302
Setep-en-Rā meri Ȧmen (Ptolemy I), 302
Sêth, 138
Seti I, 152, 153, 240, 241, 252, 255;
King List of, 185;
plan of tomb of, 174
Seti II Mer-en-Ptaḥ, 245, 248, 296
Set-nekht, King, 234, 248, 249
Settu-Rā, 301
Seven years’ famine, 166
Sewênêh, 1
Shaȧru, father of Cheops, 196, 286
Shabaka, 68, 256, 288, 300
Shabataka, 257, 300
Shablûkah cataract, 13
Shabti figure, 152
Shadow, 156
Shâdûf, 89, 96
Shāit en Sensen, 62
Shâmbî, 277
Sharkîyah, 18
Sharuhen, 228
Shashanq I, 253, 288, 298
Shashanq II, 288, 299
Shashanq III, 289, 299
Shashanq IV, 255, 289, 299
Shashanq, an official, 115, 273
Shashanq, high-priest, 254
Shas-ḥetep, 16
Shasu, 240;
governors of, 224
Shat, season of, 182
Sheep, 22, 82, 95
Sheets, padded linen, 90
Shêkh al-Balad, statue of, 203
Shemu, season of, 182
Shen amulet, 150
Shennu, 117, 191
Shep-en-Ȧpt I, 256
Shep-en-Ȧpt II, 256
Shepherd kings, 224, 225
Shepherds, dynasties of, 222, 223
Shepseskaf, King, 201, 287, 289
Shepses-ka-Rā, 203, 287, 291
Shepuit, 131
Sherȧ, a Ka-priest, 192, 193
Sheshȧ, stele of, 198
Shesmu, 144
Sheta, 132
Shield, green slate, 191, 195;
with badge, 120
Shirt, 81, 120
Shishak, 179, 253, 288, 298
Shrine, 106, 272
Shu, 128
Shutarna, 233
Shutb, 16
Sickle, 97
Silko, 278
Silurus, 133
Silver rings, 179
Sinai, peninsula of, 4, 203, 205, 206, 208, 210, 214, 217, 219, 222,
240;
conquest of, 195
Sin, 140-142
Sins, the Forty-two, 142
Singing, 31
Sirius, 184
Sistrum, 87, 178
Siut, 209
Sîwah, Oasis of, 5
Six, Great House of, 207
Skeletons of pygmies, 205
Skemiophris, 219
S-khā-en-Rā meri Ȧmen, 297
Skins of animals, 98
Skulls of Egyptians, 158
Sma amulet, 150
Sma-taui, 211
Smendes, 251, 298
Smen-Ḥeru, 16
Smer, 118
Smerkha, King, 190, 286
Smer-uāt, 118
Smeṭsmeṭ, 262
Snake god, 132
S-netchem-ȧb-Rā, 301
So, 256
Sobat, river, 13
Soil of Egypt, 4
Soldiers, equipment of, 120
Soleb, temple of, 231, 232
Solomon, 95, 253;
seal of, 282
Solum, gulf of, 4
Somaliland, 21
Somerset, river, 11
Son of Rā name, 117, 203
Song of Ȧntuf, 75
Song of the Harper, 28, 75
Songs, 75
Soter, 268, 302
Sothic Period, 182, 184;
Year, 182, 184
Sothis, 184, 186
Soul, 156;
symbolized by the heart, 140
Sow, 96
Sowing of crops, 96
Sparrow, 85
Spear, 178
Spells, 31
Sphinx, 198, 199;
repaired, 277;
sand cleared from, 232;
temple of the, 104
Sphinx (Thothmes III), 231
Sphinxes, 105;
avenue of, 230;
from Ṣân, 218
Spice, 83, 98
Spinach, 82
Spindle whorls, 165
Spindles, 165
Spirit, 156
Spirits, 133;
Land of, 204
Spoons, 92
Spring, 183
Staff, inscribed, 178;
of office, 81
Staircase to tombs, 173
Stars, 145
Statues for the Ka, 177
Statues painted, 110, 113
Stele of 400 years, 225;
of the dream, 258
Stelae, sepulchral, 220
Step pyramid, 166, 193
Steps amulet, 150
Steps, god of the, 189
Stibium, 81
Stick, walking, 81
Stole, 164
Stomach, god of, 161
Stone-cutting, 191
Stonemason, 100
Stools, 91, 178
Strabo quoted, 11, 13, 242
Succoth, 17
Sûdân, 73, 204, 205, 206, 221, 228, 230, 237, 239, 240, 262;
conquests of, 195, 213, 283;
Roman centurions in, 277;
the, 13 nomes of, 17
Sûdân, Modern, provinces of, 19
Suez, 19, 98;
isthmus of, 22;
Canal, 6, 259
Ṣûhâḳ, 18;
church of, 284;
dialect of, 35
Ṣulb, 232, 234, 235;
temple of, 231
Summer, 183
Sun amulet, 149
Sundial, 72, 273
Sunk-relief, 110
Sunnu, 1
Sunrise, mountain of, 145
Sunset, mountain of, 145
Sunt, 1
Superstition, 32
Sururu, stele of, 234
Suser-en-Rā, King, 226, 294
Sutekh, 131, 225, 226
Suten-ȧbu, relief of, 194
Suten Bȧt name, 116
Suten-ḥenen, 16, 209;
princes of, 208
Suten rekh title, 221
Suten ṭā ḥetep prayer, 220, 221
Suti, 225
Sutui, an architect, 239
Swallow, 85
Swallow-goddess, 132
Sweetmeats, 82
Swine, 82
Syene, 1, 172, 206, 268, 275, 285
Syncellus, the, 264
Syria, 71, 240;
wars in, 229, 232;
garrisons of, 237
Syrups, 82
Ta-ȧḥet, Oasis of, 5
Tabah, 4
Tables, 91, 178
Tablet of Ṣaḳḳârah, 71, 185
Tablet for offerings, 169
Tablets of Abydos, 71, 185
Tablets, sepulchral, 177
Tachos, 266
Taenterert, 16
Tafnekht I, 288
Tafnekht II, 288
Taharqa, 257, 288, 300
Tail, 81
Tails of animals worn by men, 21
Ta-Kens, 16
Ta-Kenset, 216
Ta-Khart-Ȧst, statue of, 261
Takhauath, 260
Tale of the two brothers, 69, 70
Tall al-Maskhûṭah, 17, 243
Tall Basṭah, 17
Tambourine, 87
Ta-Merȧ, 4
Tandamanie, 257, 258
Tanis, 17, 216, 225, 243, 252;
sphinxes of, 218
Tanḳâsi, pyramids of, 170
Ṭanṭa, 18
Tanuath-Ȧmen, 257, 258, 288, 300
Tashermut, a priestess, 273
Tasheṭ-Khensu, 254
Tasitia, 18
Taskmasters, 151
Ṭāṭā-āa, stele of, 248
Ta-tenen, 130
Tati-ānkef, stele of, 219
Tattoo markings, 82
Tȧu, 188, 286
Tau-āa (Seqenen-Rā I), 226, 294
Tau-āa-āa (Seqenen-Rā II), 226, 294
Tau-āa-qen (Seqenen-Rā III), 226, 294
Ta-Uatchet, 18
Taurt (Thoueris), 126, 131
Taxes levied by priests, 250
Tcha, King, 189
Tchaa, stele of, 216
Tchal, 17
Tchat, 117
Tchatchai, 193, 286
Tchatchaiu, 151
Tchefau-em-sa-f I, 205, 291
Tchefau-em-sa-f II, 291
Tcheḥrȧ, 266, 289, 302
Tchekā, 17
Tcheser, 14, 166, 193, 286
Tcheser-ka-Rā, 294
Tcheser-kheperu-Rā setep-en-Rā, 296
Tcheser-sa, King, 193
Tcheser-Tcheseru, 230
Tcheser-Tetȧ, King, 193
Tchesertetȧ, 290
Tchesti, Oasis of, 5
Ṭeb, 16
Ṭeben, a measure, 98
Ṭebu, 16
Tefnut, 128
Teḥuti, 17, 125, 128
Teḥuti-āa, stele of, 224
Teḥuti-ḥetep, wall paintings of, 222
Teḥutimes, stele of, 239
Teḥuti-sat, 164
Tell al-Amarna, tablets of, 113, 236
Tell al-Yahûdîyyah, 250
Temple, the, 104
Temu, 129, 258
Ten, 16
Ṭen, King, 189, 286
Ṭenȧt, a measure, 98
Tenȧuit, 219
Teni, 16
Ṭenḳ (pygmy), 204
Tentyris, 16
Teôs, 266, 289
Ṭep-Ȧḥet, 16
Terenouthis, 268
Tes-Ḥeru, 16
Ṭeṭ, 125
Ṭeṭ amulet, 149
Tetȧ (dynasty I), 189
Tetȧ (dynasty II), 286
Tetȧ (dynasty VI), 205
Tetȧ (Ḥen-nekht), 286, 290
Tetȧ-Kharṭ, Queen, 113, 114
Tetȧ Mer-en Ptaḥ, 287, 291
Ṭeṭ-f-Rā, King, 199, 286, 290
Ṭeṭ-ka-Rā, King, 208
Ṭeṭ-ka-Rā Ȧssȧ, 203, 287, 291
Ṭeṭ-kau-Rā, 300
Ṭeṭun, 129
Teucharis, 283
That-I-em-ḥetep, stele of, 29, 274
Thebaïd, 269, 279
Thebans, 209
Thebes, 16, 216, 226;
high priest of, 119;
princes of, 208, 209;
sacked, 258;
triad of, 234
Theb-neter, 17
Thekaut, 17
Thekeleth I, 254, 288, 298
Thekeleth II, 255, 256, 288, 299
Thekeleth III, 288, 299
Thent-Kheta, 260
Theodosius, 278
Thesh, 188, 286
Thethȧ, 200;
relief of, 205;
stele of, 210
Thet-taui, 213
Thi, Queen, 233-236, 295
This, city of, 16, 188
Thoth, god, inventor of writing, 55, 75, 128, 135, 139, 140, 183, 196
Thoth, the Twice-Great, 265
Thothmes I, 229, 287, 294
Thothmes II, 230, 287, 294
Thothmes III, 164, 179, 230, 231, 287, 295
Thothmes IV, 198, 232, 287, 295
Thoueris, 126
Threshing floor, 97
Thuȧa, 233
Thunurei, 71
Thuthu, stele of, 238
Thuthu, stele and libation tank of, 239
Tiberius, 277
Tiles, glazed, 193
Time, divisions of, 181
Timekeepers, 151
Timsaḥ, lake, 5
Tin, 98
Tirhâḳâh, 257, 288, 300
Tmai al Amdîd, 17
Tnouba, 56
Tôf, 102
Toilet box, 178;
requisites, 91
Tomb of Osymandyas, 242
Tomb, the pyramid, 166;
the maṣṭaba, 167;
the rock-hewn, 172;
endowment of, 175;
equipment, 178
Tombs of the kings, 173 ff., 231
Top-dressing, 151
Toys, 78, 101, 178
Trade, 97
Trajan, 279
Travel, 69
Tree of life, 143
Tree-trunk amulet, 149
Triads, 123
Troïs, 283
Ṭuamutef, 125, 129, 161
Ṭuat, or Other World, 145
Tûlûnid Khalîfas, 285
Tumblers, 87
Ṭura, quarries of, 198, 213, 217
Turin Papyrus, 71, 185
Turquoise, 215
Turquoise mines, 204
Turtle-god, 132
Tushratta, 98, 233, 236
Tut-i-em-ḥetep, 39
Tutānkh-Ȧmen, 235, 238, 287, 296
Two-horns, 142
Tybi, month of, 183
Uaḥ-ȧb-Rā (Ḥophra), 153, 288, 300
Uaḥ-ȧb-Rā, statue of, 261
Uaḥ-ānkh, King, 210, 292
Uaḥ-ka-Rā (Bocchoris), 299
Uaḥt-rest, Oasis of, 5
Uamemti, 142
Uasarken I, 254, 288, 298
Uasarken II, 217, 218, 254, 288, 298
Uasarken III, 255, 288, 299
Uasarken IV, 288, 299
Uast, 16
Uatch-ȧnt, 188, 286
Uatchet, 16, 126, 128
Uatch-kheper-Rā, 294
Uatch-nār, 188, 286
Uatchnes, King, 191, 286
Uauaiu, 213
Uḥem-ȧb-Rā, 300
Ukhedu disease, 190
Umm Darmân, 4
Unȧ, 120, 206
Unȧs, King, 203, 205, 287, 291;
legend of, 74
Unguents, 178
Unt, 16
Unu-Ȧmen, travels of, 70
Upholsterer, 100
Upper Nile, province of, 19
Ur, 199
Uraeus, 179
Ur-ȧri-en-Ptaḥ, maṣṭaba of, 170, 207
Ur-ḥeka, 65
Ur-kherp-ḥem, 119, 274
Ur-maau, 119
Urt-Ḥekau, 126
User, stele of, 212
User-en-Rā, 203, 204
User-en-Rā Ȧn, 287, 291
Userkaf, King, 201, 203, 205, 287, 291
Userka-Rā, King, 205
Userka-Rā Ȧti, 287
Usertsen I, 73, 172, 213, 287, 293
Usertsen II, 172, 215, 287, 293
Usertsen III, 73, 115-117, 121, 172, 216, 217, 255, 257, 287, 293
Usertsen IV, 219, 287, 293
Usertsen, a prince, 222
Usertsen-senbu, stele of, 218
Ushabti figure, 152, 177
Usr-ka-Rā meri Ȧmen, 302
Usr-kheperu-Rā meri Ȧmen, 296
Usr-maāt-Rā Ȧmen-meri setep-en-Rā, 297
Usr-maāt-Rā khu-en-Ȧmen, 297
Usr-maāt-Rā-s-kheper-en-Rā, 297
Usr-maāt-Rā setep-en-Ȧmen (Rameses III), 297
Usr-maāt-Rā setep-en-Ȧmen (Rameses IV), 297
Usr-maāt-Rā setep-en-Rā Ȧmen (Osorkon II), 298
Usr-maāt-Rā setep-en-Ȧmen (Pamȧi), 299
Usr-maāt-Rā setep-en-Rā (Rameses II), 296
Usr-maāt-Rā setep-en-Rā (Shishak III), 299
Usr-Rā-setep-en-Ptaḥ, 301
Utcha-ḥer-resenet, 262, 263
Utchat amulet, 149
Uthenȧa, false door of, 207
Valley of the Acacia, 70
Vegetables, 82
Veil, 77
Vespasian, 279
Vessels, funerary, 178
Victor, a priest, 56
Victor, 283
Victoria Nyanza, 11
Vines, 89
Vulture, 85;
amulet, 149;
goddess, 132
Wâd Bâ-Nagaa, 231
Wâdî al-Ḥamâr cataract, 13
Wâdî Ḥalfah, 4, 214, 216, 240
Wâdî Ḥalfah camp, 4
Wâdî Ḥammâmât, 22, 204, 206
Wâdî Maghârah, 195, 196, 203, 214
Wâdî Ulâḳî, 240, 243
Warburton, 44
Watchers, 144
Water-fowl, 180
Water-melons, 82
Water supply, 90
Wax, used for magical figures, 31
Wax figures, 67
Weaving, art of, 99
Weights, 98
Weston, 44
Wheat, 22, 82
White Crown, 190
White Nile, province of, 19
Whorls, 165
Wicked, annihilation of, 144
Wife, status of, 77
Wigs, 81, 101
Wild-dog, 85
Winding-sheet, 164
Window, 273
Wine, 83
Wine, imperishable, 143
Wine-jars, sealings of, 189
Winnowing of grain, 97
Winter, 183
Witches, 31
Wolf, 85
Wolf-god, 132
Wood-carver, 101
Wool-work, 165
Words of power, 31, 149
Writing, 22
Writing, art of, introduced, 194
Writing reeds, 53
Xerxes I, the Great, 263, 267, 288, 301
Xoïs, 17, 222
Year, the calendar, 184;
the lunar, 182;
the primitive, 182;
the solar, 182;
the Sothic, 182;
the vague, 184
Young, Thomas, 44, 270
Zaêl, 57
Zaḳâzîḳ, 18
Zâwyet al-ʿAryân, pyramids of, 170
Zedekiah, 259, 260
Zobah, 253
Zodiac, 71
Zoëga, 44
Zûma, pyramids of, 170
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By E. A. Wallis Budge, Litt.D., and L. W. King, M.A. Vol. I. 1903. 4to.
1_l._
PHOTOGRAPH OF A BABYLONIAN TABLET (Sp. 3, 2). 1895. 1_s._ 6_d._
THE TELL EL-AMARNA TABLETS IN THE BRITISH MUSEUM. Autotype Plates. 1892.
8vo. 1_l._ 8_s._
CATALOGUE OF CUNEIFORM TABLETS IN THE KOUYUNJIK COLLECTION. By C. Bezold.
Vol. I., 8vo, 1889, 15_s._; Vol. II., 8vo, 1891, 15_s._; Vol. III., 8vo,
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GUIDE BOOKS.
GUIDE TO THE EGYPTIAN COLLECTIONS. With 53 plates and 180 illustrations.
1909. 8vo. 1_s._
GUIDE TO THE FIRST AND SECOND EGYPTIAN ROOMS. With 32 plates and 28
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GUIDE TO THE THIRD AND FOURTH EGYPTIAN ROOMS. With 8 plates and 131
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GUIDE TO THE BABYLONIAN AND ASSYRIAN COLLECTIONS. 2nd edition. With 45
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HIMYARITIC & PHOENICIAN INSCRIPTIONS.
INSCRIPTIONS IN THE PHOENICIAN CHARACTER, discovered on the site of
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INSCRIPTIONS IN THE HIMYARITIC CHARACTER, discovered chiefly in Southern
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A guide to the Egyptian collections in the British Museum
British Museum. Department of Egyptian and Assyrian Antiquities
Chimera50
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