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[Illustration]
THE SCIENCE OF
ANIMAL LOCOMOTION
(ZOOPRAXOGRAPHY)
AN ELECTRO-PHOTOGRAPHIC INVESTIGATION OF
CONSECUTIVE PHASES OF ANIMAL MOVEMENTS
BY
EADWEARD MUYBRIDGE
EXECUTED AND PUBLISHED UNDER THE AUSPICES OF THE
UNIVERSITY OF PENNSYLVANIA
DESCRIPTION OF THE APPARATUS
RESULTS OF THE INVESTIGATION
DIAGRAMS
PROSPECTUS
LIST OF SUBSCRIBERS
EADWEARD MUYBRIDGE
UNIVERSITY OF PENNSYLVANIA
PHILADELPHIA
OR
10 HENRIETTA STREET,
COVENT GARDEN
LONDON
ANIMAL LOCOMOTION.
(ZOOPRAXOGRAPHY.)
INTRODUCTORY.
In 1872, the author of the present work at Sacramento, California,
commenced an investigation with the object of illustrating by
photography some phases of animal movements. In that year his
experiments were made with a famous horse--Occident, owned by Senator
Stanford--and photographs were made, which illustrated several phases of
action while the horse was trotting at full speed, laterally, in front
of the camera.
The experiments were desultorily continued; but it was not until 1877
that the results of any of them were published.
In the meanwhile he devised an automatic electro-photographic apparatus,
for the purpose of making consecutive photographic exposures at
_regulated_ intervals of time or of distance. Some of the results of his
experiments with this apparatus, which illustrated successive phases of
the action of horses while walking, trotting, galloping, &c., were
published in 1878, with the title of "THE HORSE IN MOTION." Copies of
these photographs were deposited the same year in the Library of
Congress at Washington, and some of them found their way to Berlin,
London, Paris, Vienna, &c., where they were commented upon by the
journals of the day.
In 1882, during a lecture on "The Science of Animal Locomotion in its
relation to Design in Art," given at the Royal Institution (see
_Proceedings_ of the Royal Institution of Great Britain, March 13,
1882), he exhibited the results of some of his experiments made during a
few antecedent years at Palo Alto, California; when he, with the
zoopraxiscope and an oxy-hydrogen lantern, projected on the wall a
synthesis of many of the actions he had analysed.
It may not be considered irrelevant if he repeats what he on that
occasion said in his analysis of the quadrupedal walk:--
"So far as the camera has revealed, these successive foot fallings are
invariable, and are probably common to all quadrupeds....
"It is also highly probable that these photographic
investigations--which were executed with wet collodion plates, with
exposures not exceeding in some instances the one five-thousandth part
of a second--will dispel many popular illusions as to the gait of a
horse, and that future and more exhaustive experiments, with the
advantages of recent chemical discoveries, will completely unveil to the
artist all the visible muscular action of men and animals during their
most rapid movements....
"The employment of automatic apparatus for the purpose of obtaining a
regulated succession of photographic exposures is too recent for its
value to be properly understood, or to be generally used for scientific
experiment. At some future time the explorer for hidden truths will find
it indispensable for his investigations."
In 1883, the University of Pennsylvania, with an enlightened exercise of
its functions as a contributor to human knowledge, instructed the author
to make, under its auspices, a comprehensive investigation of "Animal
Locomotion" in the broadest significance of the words.
A DIAGRAM OF THE STUDIO
and the arrangement of the apparatus used for this purpose is here
given.
[Illustration]
TT represents the track along which the model M was caused to move. B is
the background, divided into spaces of 5 centimetres square for the
purpose of measurement.
L, a horizontal battery of electro-photographic cameras, parallel to the
line of motion (at a distance of 15 metres or about 48 feet therefrom),
for a series of 12 lateral exposures.
R, a vertical battery of electro-photographic cameras, at right angles
to the lateral battery, for a series of 12 _rear_ foreshortenings.
F, a horizontal battery of electro-photographic cameras, at any suitable
angle to the lateral battery for a series of _front_ foreshortenings.
O, the position of the electric batteries, a chronograph for recording
the time intervals of exposures, and other apparatus used in the
investigation.
A clock-work apparatus, set in motion at the will of the operator,
distributed a series of electric currents, and synchronously effected
consecutive exposures in each of the three batteries of cameras.
The intervals of exposures were recorded by the chronograph, and divided
into thousandths of a second. These intervals could be varied at will
from seventeen one-thousandth parts of a second to several seconds.
The task of making the original negatives was completed in 1885; the
remaining years have been devoted to the preparation of the work for
publication.
[Illustration:
LATERAL elevation of some consecutive phases of action by representative
horses.
Each line illustrates the successive fallings of the feet during a
single stride.
After the last phase illustrated, the feet, during continuous motion,
will revert practically to their position in the first phase.
The comparative distances of the feet from each other or from the ground
are not drawn to scale; and, in any event, would be merely approximate
for the succeeding stride.
In the conjectural stride No. 10, phase 3 is very doubtful, phases 5 and
7 seem probable in a very long stride.]
DESCRIPTION OF THE PLATES.
The results of this investigation are
=Seven Hundred and Eighty-one Sheets of Illustrations=, containing more
than 20,000 figures of men, women, and children, animals and birds,
actively engaged in walking, galloping, flying, working, jumping,
fighting, dancing, playing at base-ball, cricket, and other athletic
games, or other actions incidental to every-day life, which illustrate
motion or the play of muscles.
These sheets of illustrations are conventionally called "plates."
Each plate illustrates the successive phases of a single action,
photographed with automatic electro-photographic apparatus at regulated
and accurately recorded intervals of time, _consecutively_ from one
point of view; or, _consecutively_ AND _synchronously_ from _two_, or
from _three_ points of view.
=Each Plate is complete in itself without reference to any other Plate.=
When the complete series of twelve consecutive exposures, from each of
the three points of view, are included in ONE Plate, the arrangement is
usually thus:--
+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+--+--+--+
| | | | | | | | | | | | | Laterals.
| | | | | | | | | | | | |
|1|2|3|4|5|6|7|8|9|10|11|12|
| | | | | | | | | | | | |
+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+--+--+--+
| | | | | | | | | | | | | Rear Foreshortenings from
| | | | | | | | | | | | | points of view on the same
|1|2|3|4|5|6|7|8|9|10|11|12| vertical line, at an angle
| | | | | | | | | | | | | of 90° from the Laterals.
+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+--+--+--+
| | | | | | | | | | | | | Front Foreshortenings from
| | | | | | | | | | | | | points of view on the same
|1|2|3|4|5|6|7|8|9|10|11|12| horizontal plane, at suitable
| | | | | | | | | | | | | angles from the Laterals.
+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+--+--+--+
The plates are not _photographs_ in the common acceptation of the word,
but are printed in PERMANENT INK, from gelatinised copper-plates, by the
New York Photo-Gravure Company, on thick linen plate-paper.
The size of the paper is 45 × 60 centimetres--19 × 24 inches, and the
printed surface varies from 15 × 45 to 20 × 30 centimetres--6 × 18 to 9
× 12 inches.
The number of figures on each plate varies from 12 to 36.
To publish so great a number of plates as one undivided work was
considered unnecessary, for each subject tells its own story; and
inexpedient, for it would defeat the object which the University had in
view, and limit its acquisition to large Libraries, wealthy individuals,
or Institutions where it would be beyond the reach of many who might
desire to study it.
It has, therefore, been decided to issue a series of One Hundred Plates,
which number, for the purposes of publication, will be considered as a
"COPY" of the work. These one hundred plates will probably meet the
requirements of the greater number of the subscribers.
In accordance with this view is issued the following
_PROSPECTUS_
ANIMAL LOCOMOTION,
AN ELECTRO-PHOTOGRAPHIC INVESTIGATION OF CONSECUTIVE PHASES
OF ANIMAL MOVEMENTS,
BY
EADWEARD MUYBRIDGE.
1872-1885.
PUBLISHED UNDER THE AUSPICES OF THE
UNIVERSITY OF PENNSYLVANIA.
_Exclusively by Subscription._
CONSISTING OF A SERIES OF
ONE HUNDRED PLATES,
AT A SUBSCRIPTION PRICE OF
ONE HUNDRED DOLLARS
For the United States, or
TWENTY GUINEAS
For Great Britain;
Or the equivalent of Twenty Guineas in the gold currency
of other countries in Europe.
This will be for
Austria,
Two Hundred and Ten Florins;
Belgium, France, Italy, and Switzerland,
Five Hundred and Twenty-five Francs;
Germany,
Four Hundred and Twenty Marks;
Holland,
Two Hundred and Fifty Guilders.
The Plates are enclosed in a strong, canvas-lined, full AMERICAN-RUSSIA
LEATHER PORTFOLIO.
For the purpose of placing all of the subscribers upon an equal footing
in regard to cost, a copy of the work will be sent in the portfolio, and
packed between boards, to any well-established Institution, or to any
subscriber, properly endorsed, to any city in Central or Western Europe,
or in the United States.
FREIGHT CHARGES PAID,
if so requested, to the railway station, with the understanding that the
subscription price is remitted within one week of the day of the arrival
of the work at the station.
Custom duties, or any other expenses, if any, at the cost of the
subscriber.
Additional Plates in any required number will be supplied to the
subscriber at the same proportionate rate; these, however, must be
ordered at the same time as the subscription Plates.
The Plates will be supplied
EXCLUSIVELY TO SUBSCRIBERS.
It was considered inadvisable to make an _arbitrary_ selection of the
one hundred Plates offered to subscribers, and with the object of
meeting, as far as possible, their diverse requirements, they are
invited to make their own selection, either from the subjoined list of
subjects, or from a detailed catalogue, which will be forwarded free of
expense to every subscriber.
The following are the numbers of Plates published of each class of
subjects, from which the subscriber's selection can be made:--
Plates Published.
Men, draped 6
" pelvis cloth 72
" nude 133
Women, draped 60
" transparent drapery and semi-nude 63
" nude 180
Children, draped 1
" nude 15
Movements of a man's hand 5
Abnormal movements, men and women, nude and
semi-nude 27
Horses walking, trotting, galloping, jumping, &c. 95
Mules, oxen, dogs, cats, goats, and other domestic
animals 40
Lions, elephants, buffaloes, camels, deer, and other
wild animals 57
Pigeons, vultures, ostriches, eagles, cranes, and other
birds 27
----
Total number of Plates 781
Containing more than 20,000 Figures.
=Should the selection be made from the Catalogue, it will be advisable
to give the Author permission to change any one of the selected Plates
for any other illustrating the same action, if, in his judgment, the
substituted Plate illustrates that action with a better model, or in a
more perfect manner than the one selected.=
=With regard to the selection of Plates, however, it has been found by
experience that unless any special subject or plate is required it will
be more satisfactory to the subscriber if he gives the Author GENERAL
INSTRUCTIONS as to the CLASS of subjects desired and to leave the
SPECIFIC selection to him.=
Many of the large Libraries and Art or Science Institutions in America
and in Europe have subscribed for, and have now in their possession, a
complete series of the seven hundred and eighty-one Plates, the
subscription price for which is
FIVE HUNDRED DOLLARS
in the United States,
ONE HUNDRED GUINEAS
in Great Britain for the complete series, in eight full AMERICAN-RUSSIA
LEATHER PORTFOLIOS, or if bound in eleven volumes, each plate _hinged_,
full American-Russia leather,
FIVE HUNDRED AND FIFTY DOLLARS
in the United States,
ONE HUNDRED AND TEN GUINEAS
in Great Britain; or its equivalent for any city in Central or Western
Europe.
Subscribers who wish to make use of these Plates for the promotion or
diffusion of knowledge, or for artistic or scientific purposes, will be
afforded facilities for acquiring working copies by special arrangement
with the Author.
VALEDICTORY.
This is not exactly the place nor the time for the Author to express his
obligations and thanks to those gentlemen who have assisted him in his
labours, but it affords a perhaps not inappropriate opportunity for him
to pay a tribute of gratitude to his recently deceased friend M.
Meissonier, without whose enthusiastic encouragement it is probable the
present work would never have been undertaken.
In 1882 he invited his friends to attend an illustrated Lecture given in
his studio by the Author, and then referring to a full knowledge of a
subject being necessary for it to be truthfully or satisfactorily
translated by the artist, declared how much his own impression of a
horse's motion had been changed after having carefully studied its
consecutive phases. Attention need not be directed to the modifications
in the expression of animal movements now progressing in the works of
the Painter and the Sculptor.
The investigations of the Author are so well known, and so generally
recognised as affording the only basis of truthful interpretation or
accurate criticism of Animal Movement, that it is unnecessary to quote
from the many elaborate reviews of "Animal Locomotion," which have been
published in the American, English, French, and German Scientific,
Artistic, and other Journals.
For the value of the present work to the general student of Nature and
the lover of Art, no less than to the Artist and the Archæologist, the
Physiologist and the Anatomist, it is with much pride and gratitude that
he refers to the annexed list of some of his European subscribers.
E. M.
10 HENRIETTA STREET,
COVENT GARDEN,
LONDON,
_August 1891_.
SUBSCRIBERS.
The general or departmental Libraries of the following
UNIVERSITIES.
Amsterdam
Andrews, St.
Basel
Berlin
Bern
Bologna
Bonn
Breslau
Bruxelles
Edinburgh
Erlangen
Freiburg
Genève
Genova
Glasgow
Göttingen
Griefswald
Halle
Heidelberg
Innsbrück
Jena
Kiel
Königsberg
Leiden
Leipzig
Liège
Louvain
München
Napoli
Oxford
Padova
Pisa
Prag
Roma
Rostock
Strassburg
Torino
Tübingen
Utrecht
Wien
Würzburg
Zürich
IMPERIAL, NATIONAL, OR ROYAL ACADEMIES OF FINE ARTS.
Amsterdam
Antwerpen
Berlin
Bern
Birmingham
Bologna
Breslau
Bruxelles
Budapest
Dresden
Düsseldorf
Firenzi
Frankfurt
Genova
Gent
Leipzig
Liège
London
Manchester
Milano
München
Napoli
Paris
Praha
Roma (_de France_)
Sheffield
Torino
Venezia
Wien
Zürich
Architectural Institute, München
Herkomer School of Art, Bushey
ART MUSEUMS.
Amsterdam
Berlin
Budapest
ARCHÆOLOGICAL INSTITUTES AND MUSEUMS.
Dresden
Griefswald
Heidelberg
Königsberg
Leipzig
Prag
Rostock
Strassburg
Wien
Würzburg
Zürich
INDUSTRIAL ART AND SCIENCE MUSEUMS.
Berlin
Dublin
Edinburgh
Kensington
Paris
Wien
INDUSTRIAL ART SCHOOLS.
Amsterdam
Breslau
Budapest
Frankfurt
Nürnberg
Zürich
LIBRARIES.
The Royal Library, Windsor Castle
Birmingham, Free Public
Edinburgh, Advocates'
Glasgow, Mitchell Free
Liverpool, Free Public
London, British Museum
Manchester, Free Public
Nottingham, Free Public
Paris, National Library
ANATOMICAL INSTITUTES.
Bern
Breslau
Freiburg
Halle
Innsbrück
Kiel
Königsberg
Leipzig
München
Pisa
Prag
Rostock
Tübingen
Würzburg
Zürich
ROYAL COLLEGES OF SURGEONS.
Edinburgh
London
PHYSIOLOGICAL INSTITUTES.
Basel
Berlin
Bern
Bologna
Bonn
Breslau
Bruxelles
Erlangen
Freiburg
Genova
Göttingen
Griefswald
Halle
Heidelberg
Innsbrück
Jena
Kiel
Königsberg
Leipzig
Louvain
München
Napoli
Prag
Rostock
Strassburg
Torino
Tübingen
Wien
Würzburg
Zürich
VETERINARY INSTITUTES.
Alfort
Bern
Berlin
Dresden
ANTHROPOLOGICAL MUSEUMS.
Dresden
Firenze
ETHNOLOGICAL, NATURAL HISTORY, AND ZOOLOGICAL INSTITUTES AND MUSEUMS.
Amsterdam
Bruxelles
Freiburg
Kiel
Leiden
Liège
Napoli
Paris
Rostock
PHYSICAL INSTITUTES.
Basel
Bologna
Bruxelles
Genève
Heidelberg
Padova
Prag
Roma
Rostock
Utrecht
POLYTECHNIC HIGH SCHOOLS.
Berlin
Firenze
Wien
Zürich
COLLEGES.
Charterhouse
Clifton
Dublin (Trinity)
Eton
Owens
Rossall
Wellington
ROYAL PORCELAIN MANUFACTORIES.
Berlin
Dresden
ARTISTIC, LITERARY OR SCIENTIFIC CLUBS.
Düsseldorf, _Malkesten_
Glasgow, _Western_
London, _Athenæum_
Rome, _Internazionale_
* * * * *
Agricultural High School of Berlin
Faculty of Medicine of Paris
Faculty of Physicians and Surgeons of Glasgow
Psychological Institute of Leipzig
Royal College of Physicians, Edinburgh
Royal Institution, Edinburgh
Royal Dublin Society
Royal Society of London
The names and works of the following subscribers are so well known that
the Academical, University, and other honourable distinctions
appertaining to them are omitted, they being entirely unnecessary:--
ARTISTS, _Architects, Painters, and Sculptors_.
Albano, Salvatore
l'Allemand, Sigmund
Alma-Tadema, L.
Armitage, E.
Barabino, Nicolo
Becker, Carl
Begas, Reinhold
Benczur, Gyula
Berger, Julius
Behrens, Peter
Birch, Chas. B.
Boehm, Sir J. Edgar
Bonnat, Léon
Boughton, Geo. H.
Bouguereau, W. A.
Braith, Anton
Brandt, Josef von
Brausewetter, Otto
Bridgman, F. A.
Brock, Thos.
Canneel
Carland, Onorato
Carolus-Durand
Cavallucci, C. Jacopo
Cavelier, P. J.
Charlton, John
Clay, Sir Arthur
Coleman, Chas. Caryl
Coleman, Enrico
Colin, Paul
Conti, Tito
Costa, Giovanni
Crowe, Eyre
Dalou, Jules
Dannat, W. T.
Davinet, E.
Davis, H. W. B.
Defregger, Franz von
Detaille, Edouard
Dicksee, Frank
Diez, Rob.
Diez, Wm.
Drion, Prosper
Dubois, Paul
Ebner, L.
Eisenmenger, August
Ende, Herm
Ewald, Ernst
Faed, Thomas
Falguiere
Fildes, Luke
Ford, E. Onslow
Fremiet, M.
Frith, W. P.
Gallegos, José
Garnier, Charles
Gehrts, Joh.
Gelli, Edouardo
Gérôme, Jean Léon
Gilbert, Alfred
Gilbert, Sir John
Goodall, Fredk.
Gordigiani, Michele
Gow, Andrew C.
Grosse, Th.
Grützner, Eduard
Guignard, Gaston
Gysis, N.
Haüser, O.
Hebert, Ernesto
Herkomer, Hubert
Hess, Anton
Higgins, A.
Hübner, Eduard
Hunt, Holman
Janssen, Pet.
Kampf, Arthur
Kaulbach, F. A. von
Kips, A.
Kirchbach, Fr.
Klein-Chevalier
Knaus, Ludwig
Knight, Ridgway
Knille, Otto
Koehler, Robert
Kopf, Joseph
Kowalski, A. von
Kroner, Ch.
Kruse, Max
Kuehl, G.
Kühn, H.
Leighton, Sir Frederick
Lenbach, Franz R. von
Linton, Sir James D.
Löfftz, Ludwig R. von
Long, Edwin
Lotz, Carl
Lucas, Seymour
Luthmer, F.
MacWhirter, John
Marks, H. Stacy
Marshall, W. Calder
Maurier, George du
Max, Gabriel
Meeks, Eugene
Meissonier
Menzel
Meyerheim, Paul
Millais, Sir John E.
Miller, Ferdinand R. von
Molkenbaer, H. B. G.
Moore, Henry
Morelli, D.
Morot, Aimé
Muller, Carl
Munkacsy, Mich. de
Murgatroyd, J.
Mützel, G.
Nieper, Ludw.
Orchardson, W. Q.
Otto, Heinrich
Ouless, W. W.
Papperitz, Georg
Parsons, Alfred
Passini, Ludwig
Piglhein, Bruno
Portaels
Powers, Longworth
Poynter, E. J.
Prell, H.
Preyer, Ernest
Puvis, de Chavennes
Richmond, W. B.
Rivalta, Augusto
Riviere, Briton
Robert-Fleury, Tony
Rodin, A.
Roll
Roth, Ch.
Rümann, Wilh.
Sant, James
Sarti, Diego
Schaper, F.
Schill, Adolf
Schilling, Johannes
Severn, Arthur
Siemering, R.
Six, J.
Sommer
Stieler, Eugen von
Story, W. W.
Sturgess, John
Süs, Wilh.
Swan, John M.
Taylor, Edw. R.
Teschendorf, E.
Thiersch, Fredk.
Thoma, Hans
Thornycroft, Hamo
Uhde, F. von
Vibert, J. G.
Vinea, Francesco
Vriendt, de Jules
Vuillefroy, F. de
Wagner, Alex.
Watts, George F.
Weeks, E. L.
Weishaupt, Victor
Wells, Hy. T.
Werner, A. von
Whistler, J. McNeil
Woolner, Thos.
Zimmermann, Ernst
Zügel, H.
ARCHÆOLOGISTS, MEN OF LETTERS, AUTHORS OF ART WORKS, ETC.
Ball, Valentine
Berndorf, Otto
Berlepsch, H. E. von
Bullen, George
Coleman, Alexander
Dickson, Wm. P.
Donnelly, Genl.
Duhn, F. von
Duplessis, Georges
Eaton, Fredk. A.
Evans, John
Falke, J.
Graf, T. T.
Hirschfeld, Gustav
Holmes, Richard R.
Kekulé, Prof.
Klein, Wilhelm
Körte, G.
Michaelis, Ad.
Muntz, Eugene
Obreen, Fr. D. O.
Overbeck, Johannes
Pietsch, Ludwig
Preuner, A.
Pulszky, Karoli
Ruskin, John
Sambuy, Conte Ernesto di
Schrieber, Th.
Sittl, K.
Smith, Genl. Sir R. M.
Sutton, Chas. W.
Tedder, Hy. R.
Thode, H.
Treu, Georg
Webster, H. A.
Wolff, Albert
PHYSIOLOGISTS.
Albertoni, Pietro
Albini
Aubert, H.
Bernstein, J.
Biedermann, W.
du Bois-Reymond
Brown-Séquard
Ewald, R.
Exner, Sigmund
Fano, Giulio
Fick, A.
Gaule, J.
Goltz, F.
Grützner, P.
Heidenhain, R.
Hensen, V.
Hering, Ewald
Hermann, L.
Kries, J.
Kronecker, H.
Kühne, W.
Landois, L.
Luciani, Luigi
Ludwig, C.
Marey, E. J.
Masoin, E.
Meissner, G.
Miescher, F.
Moleschott, Senator J.
Mosso, A.
Munk, Hermann
Pettigrew, J. Bell
Pflüger, E.
Rosenthal, I.
Schiff, M.
Slosse, A.
Vintschgau, M. von
Voit, C. von
ANATOMISTS.
Braune, Wilh.
Brunn, A. von
Cleland, John
Eisler, P.
Flemming, W.
Hasse, C.
Henke, W. J.
Humphry, G. M.
Kölliker
Marshall, John
Rabl
Romiti
Roux, W.
Rückert, J.
Schwalbe, G.
Stieda, L.
Stöhr, Ph.
Strasser, H.
Thanhoffer, L. von
Van Beneden, Edouard
Virchow, Hans
Wiedersheim
ANTHROPOLOGISTS, BIOLOGISTS, PALEONTOLOGISTS, ZOOLOGISTS, ETC.
Acland, Sir H. W.
Barrier, Gustave
Blochmann, F.
Bowman, Sir Wm.
Brandt, K. E.
Carpenter, P. Herbert
Darwin, Francis
Flower, W. H.
Galton, Francis
Günther, Albert
Hartog, Marcus
Haughton, Saml.
Hollis, W. A.
Huxley, T. H.
Jensink, F. A.
Kerbert, C.
Lankester, E. Ray
Lubbock, Sir John
Mantegazza, Senator
Meyer, A. B.
Milne-Edwards
Mivart, St. George
Müllenhoff
Müller, Max
Newton, Alfred
Owen, Sir Richard
Pasteur, L.
Romanes, Geo. J.
Schmidt, Emil
Schütz
Sorby, H. C.
Swinhoe, Chas.
Van Wulverhorst
Virchow, Rudolf
Weismann, August
Wundt, W.
Yseux
Zittell, C. A. von
PHYSICISTS, ETC.
Abney, Capt. W. de W.
Bellati
Blazerna, Pietro
Bramwell, Sir Fredk.
Bunsen, R.
Ditscheiner, L.
Glaisher, James
Hagenbach-Bischoff
Helmholtz, H. von
Huggins, Wm.
Julius, V. A.
Mach, E.
Matthiessen, L.
Moss, Rich. J.
Quincke, Georg
Righi, Augusto
Rousseau, E.
Soret, C.
Tissandier, Gaston
Thomson, Sir Wm.
Vogel, H. W.
Weber, H. F.
* * * * *
Moltke, Count von
Portland, The Duke of
Wharncliffe, The Earl of
..........
Transcriber's Note:
Every effort has been made to replicate this text as faithfully as
possible.
The author spelled Greifswald as Griefswald, Innsbruck as
Innsbrück and Häuser as Haüser in this text. These spellings have
been retained.
OE ligatures have been expanded.
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The Science of Animal Locomotion (Zoopraxography) An Electro-Photographic Investigation of Consecutive Phases of Animal Movements
Muybridge, Eadweard
Chimera64
Academic