DNA Series: Transgenesis

Table of ContentsToggleThe DNA Series:Hello everyone, this is going to be a series of blog posts. Stay tuned so you don’t lose a single one! For this series, the blog posts will be:Understanding the code of lifeConventionalbreedingMutagenic breeding – a) Introduction to mutationMutagenic breeding – b) Induced mutationTransgenic breedingInterference RNAGene editingTransgenic BreedingThe term “transgenic” was created in 1980s, where ‘trans’ means across, so across the genome. Conventional breeding faces one obstacle for agriculture, which is that only plants from the same species can be crossbred. It was before the name transgenic was created that the first organism was developed. In 1974, a bacterium namedEscherichia coliwas modified by scientists Herbert Boyer and Stanley Cohen to be resistant to kanamycin antibiotic. The gene came from another species of bacteria and it was inserted using what we callplasmid.Plasmids aresmall circular double-stranded DNAthat occurs naturally in bacteria and someeukaryotes. Plasmids usually provide bacteria withgenetic advantages, such as antibiotic resistance genes that can be passed from one cell to another in a process calledconjugation, and that information is inheritable. The plasmid can also replicate independently, meaning the cell doesn’t have to go through division for it to be replicated. Scientists then started using plasmids as a tool for genetic engineering, such ascloning, transferring, and manipulating genes, and for that purpose they started calling themvectors. When inserting genes into the plasmid vector, it becomes arecombinant plasmid, that can be used forbacterial transformation, when the recombinant plasmid is introduced into the bacteria.Now, our gene of interest (GoE) is inserted into a bacteria. If the bacteria is your final target, you can stop here, if not, there are other steps. Let’s suppose your final target for this transformation is a plant, in this case, the most common method used is Agrobacterium-mediated transformation.How transgenics are madeThere are many ways a transgenic can be developed and each group of living things will have its own protocols. For plants, there are at least five ways to transform a cell. The first and most common is Agrobacterium-mediated plant transformation. This name comes from the organism used in the transformation, which isAgrobacterium tumefaciens(and other related Agrobacterium species), a bacteria known as aplant pathogen that can transfer DNA to plant cells. Therefore, the recombinant plasmid is inserted into theAgrobacterium tumefacienscells, that will later transfer that DNA to the plant cell. The other ways, such as microparticle bombardment, electroporation, aerosol beam injection, and PEG-mediated are all direct gene transfer technologies. Inmicroparticle bombardment, micron-sized metal particles are coated with plasmid DNA and accelerated into target cells at speeds high enough to penetrate the cell wall, but low enough to avoid causing lethal damage.Electroporation is used in plant cellsto induce the uptake of plasmids, but first the cell wall of the plant is degraded (producing a protoplast) because it is a major barrier to the diffusion of macromolecules.Aerosol beam injectionuses high velocity aerosol particles with the exogenous DNA to penetrate targeted cells.Chemically-mediated transformationuses the same mechanism as electroporation, but instead of an electric pulse, the uptake of plasmids is induced by a chemical, for example polyethylene glycol (PEG) and calcium ions.Regardless of the method used, the plant cells transformed are either callus cells, protoplasts, or embryonic tissue. Those would have to be regenerated into a plant that will grow as a transgenic plant.Traits of transgenic crops1. Disease ResistanceThere areseven transgenic crops resistant to different viruses(bean, papaya, plum, potato, squash, sweet pepper, and tomato). In this case, the main mechanism used to confer the resistant is by inserting a part of the virus genetic material into the plants genome. Usually, the genes included encode theviral replication proteinorcoat protein; either will work as a “pathogen-derived resistance” mechanism (i.e. using the pathogen’s own genome to confer resistance to an organism). This is an example on howinserting exogenous DNA can improve resistance to diseases.2. Insect and Nematode ResistanceAnother common trait intransgeny is insect resistance, that has already been introduced in cotton, cowpea, eggplant, eucalyptus, corn, poplar, potato, rice, soybean, sugarcane, and tomato. The gene encoding the resistance mostly comes from bacteria, specificallyBacillus thuringiensis, which confers the abbreviation “Bt” for transgenic crops resistant to insects. The gene that comes from Bt produces an endotoxin that damages the digestive system of insects. Nematodes are round-worms that live in the soil and can sometimes damage plants by feeding on and within the roots. There are also beneficial nematodes essential for nutrient cycling, but here we will be talking about the ones who cause harm to plantations.Nematode resistance was only introduced on soybean, and the organism donor of the gene that confers the resistance is the same Bt that confers resistance to insects.3. Abiotic stress toleranceCorn, soybean, sugarcane, and wheat are the crops withabiotic stress tolerant transgenic varieties. In corn, the bacteriumBacillus subtilisis the gene donor of cold shock protein B, that maintains normal cellular functions under water stress conditions (drought). In wheat and soybean, the sunflower is the gene donor to confer tolerance to drought stress. In sugarcane,Escherichia coliandRhizobium melilotibacteria are the gene donors that confer drought stress tolerance.4. Modified product QualityModified product qualityby transgenic breeding has been done in11 different crops, for different outcomes, such as modified fatty acid profile, increased digestibility by animals, modified flower color, increased nutrition, delayed ripening, among others. The main gene donor was bacteria, but there were others such as plants, yeast, fungi, algae, microalgae, protist, animals, and viruses, as shown in the table below.CropGene donorModificationCanolaPlant, yeast, fungi, algae, microalgae, and protistModified fatty acid profileBacteriaPhytase production to make phosphorus available for monogastric animalsCarnationGarden petunia, pansy, sage, and carnationModified flower colourCornArchaeaModified alpha amylase to become thermostableOubli plantStarts producing a soluble protein with a sweetness that is approximately 1,500 times greater than sucroseBacteriaStarts producing phytase enzyme to make inorganic phosphate available when used for animal feedBacteriaEnhanced production of amino acid, lysineBacteriaIncreased digestibility by phytase enzymeMelonEscherichia Virus T3Starts producing S-adenosylmethionine hydrolase enzyme for delayed ripeningPetuniaPetunia and bacteriaChange the colour of the flowerPineappleTangerineIncreased beta-carotene levelsPineappleDelayed ripeningRiceJapanese cedar plantTrigger immune tolerance to pollen allergens in humansCorn and bacteriaEnhanced provitamin A contentRosePansy and torenia plantsChanges in the colour of the flowerSafflowerCattleStarts producing an enzyme with the ability to coagulate milk so it can be used in cheese-makingSoybeanJulia's primrose and fungiIncreased production of omega-3 fatty acidTomatoEscherichia virus T3Delayed ripening by reducing S-adenosylmethionine hydrolase enzymeBacteriaDelayed ripening by producing 1-amino-cyclopropane-1-carboxylic acid deaminase enzymeSnapdragon plantUpregulates anthocyanin and antioxidant biosynthesis, changing the colour of the flowerISAAA (2026)5. Altered growth/yieldEucalyptus started producing a recombinant protein from thale cress that promotes afaster growth. Corn had itsbiomass increasedby receiveing a protein from the same gene donor, thale cress. Lastly, soybean had itsgrowth and reproductive development increasedby receiving proteins also from thale cress.6. Pollination control systemPollination control systemwas done by transgenic breeding in three different crops.Canolareceived genes from bacteriumBacillus amyloliquefaciensthat encodes an enzyme which causes male sterility, and also to restore fertility. Inchicory, the same gene donor is used for male sterility.Cornalso received an enzyme fromBacillus amyloliquefaciensto cause male sterility; the plant received from another corn variety an enzyme that makes pollen sterile, and another protein that restores the fertility; andE. colialso acted as gene donor of an enzyme that causes male sterility in corn.7. Herbicide ToleranceThe most abundant between them all,herbicide tolerance was achieved in 17 different crops. The herbicide tolerance characteristic was obtain either by bacterium or plant working as gene donors, as shown in the table below.CropGene donorTolerance to...AlfalfaAgrobacterium tumefaciens bacteriumglyphosateCanolaBacillus licheniformis bacteriumglyphosateAgrobacterium tumefaciens bacteriumOchrobactrum anthropi bacteriumStreptomyces hygroscopicus bacteriumglufosinateStreptomyces viridochromogenes bacteriumThale cressimazamoxStenotrophomonas maltophilia bacteriumdicambaKlebsiella pneumoniae subsp. Ozaenae bacteriumoxynilCarnationTobaccosulfonylureaChicoryStreptomyces hygroscopicus bacteriumglufosinateCornStreptomyces viridochromogenes bacteriumglufosinateStreptomyces hygroscopicus bacteriumCornsulfonylurea & imidazolinoneglyphosateAgrobacterium tumefaciens bacteriumArthrobacter globiformis bacteriumStreptomyces sviceus bacteriumOchrobactrum anthropi bacteriumSphingobium herbicidovorans bacterium2,4-D & aryloxyphenoxypropionateStenotrophomonas maltophilia bacteriumdicambaCottonTobaccosulfonylureaKlebsiella pneumoniae bacteriumoxynilDelftia acidovorans bacterium2,4-DStreptomyces viridochromogenes bacteriumglufosinateStreptomyces hygroscopicus bacteriumBacillus licheniformis bacteriumglyphosateArthrobacter globiformis bacteriumAgrobacterium tumefaciens bacteriumCornPseudomonas fluorescens bacteriumisoxaflutole & relatedStenotrophomonas maltophilia bacteriumdicambaCreeping BentgrassAgrobacterium tumefaciens bacteriumglyphosateEucalyptusAgrobacterium tumefaciens bacteriumglyphosateFlaxThale cresssulfonylureaPolish CanolaStreptomyces viridochromogenes bacteriumglufosinateAgrobacterium tumefaciens bacteriumglyphosateOchrobactrum anthropi bacteriumPotatoAgrobacterium tumefaciens bacteriumglyphosateRiceStreptomyces hygroscopicus bacteriumglufosinateSoybeanStreptomyces viridochromogense bacteriumglufosinateStreptomyces hygroscopicus bacteriumThale cressimidazolinoneDelftia acidovorans bacterium2,4-DSphingobium herbicidovorans bacteriumCornglyphosateAgrobacterium tumefaciens bacteriumBacillus licheniformis bacteriumSoybeansulfonylurea-basedPseudomonas fluorescens bacteriumisoxaflutole & relatedStenotrophomonas maltophilia bacteriumdicambaRicemesotrioneOatSugar BeetAgrobacterium tumefaciens bacteriumglyphosateOchrobactrum anthropi bacteriumStreptomyces viridochromogenes bacteriumglufosinateStenotrophomonas maltophilia bacteriumdicambaSugarcaneAgrobacterium tumefaciens bacteriumglyphosateTobaccoKlebsiella pneumoniae bacteriumoxynilWheatAgrobacterium tumefaciens bacteriumglyphosateISAAA (2026)ConclusionAlthough the discussion so far has focused on plants, many other organisms have also been genetically modified, including bacteria, yeast (a unicellular fungus), and animals.One of the first commercial products developed using genetic engineering washuman insulin. Before genetically engineered insulin became available, people with diabetes were treated with insulinextracted from pigs or cows. While these animal insulins are similar to human insulin, they are not identical, and some patients experienced allergic reactions because of small structural differences. Scientists solved this problem by inserting the human insulin gene into the bacterium E. coli, allowing the bacteria to produce insulin that is highly pure and almost identical to the insulin naturally produced by the human body.Genetically modified bacteria have also been developed for other purposes. For example, some have been engineered to helpbreak down plastics in the environment, including those found in the ocean.Yeastsare another group of organisms frequently modified bybiotechnology. They can be engineered toimprove fermentation processesused in the production of foods and beverages, as well as in the production of biofuels such as ethanol.Animals have also been genetically modified for specific purposes. Others are modified for medical or dietary purposes. For instance,GalSafe pigshave been engineered so they do not produce the alpha-gal sugar, a molecule that can cause allergic reactions in some people. Because of this modification, these pigs may be safer for consumption and may also serve as potential sources of medical products, such astissues or organs for transplantation.Despite the strongscientific consensuson the safety and benefits of transgenic organisms, this technology remains one of the most vilified innovations in agriculture. Transgenic crops help mitigate environmental and social challenges, particularly in developing countries where food insecurity is widespread and the impacts of the climate crisis are more severe. Regrettably, only one-third of the benefits of transgenic crops have been experienced due to barriers and bans against the technology. The cost of these barriers and bans are higher food insecurity levels.

Table of ContentsToggle

The DNA Series:Hello everyone, this is going to be a series of blog posts. Stay tuned so you don’t lose a single one! For this series, the blog posts will be:Understanding the code of lifeConventionalbreedingMutagenic breeding – a) Introduction to mutationMutagenic breeding – b) Induced mutationTransgenic breedingInterference RNAGene editingTransgenic BreedingThe term “transgenic” was created in 1980s, where ‘trans’ means across, so across the genome. Conventional breeding faces one obstacle for agriculture, which is that only plants from the same species can be crossbred. It was before the name transgenic was created that the first organism was developed. In 1974, a bacterium namedEscherichia coliwas modified by scientists Herbert Boyer and Stanley Cohen to be resistant to kanamycin antibiotic. The gene came from another species of bacteria and it was inserted using what we callplasmid.Plasmids aresmall circular double-stranded DNAthat occurs naturally in bacteria and someeukaryotes. Plasmids usually provide bacteria withgenetic advantages, such as antibiotic resistance genes that can be passed from one cell to another in a process calledconjugation, and that information is inheritable. The plasmid can also replicate independently, meaning the cell doesn’t have to go through division for it to be replicated. Scientists then started using plasmids as a tool for genetic engineering, such ascloning, transferring, and manipulating genes, and for that purpose they started calling themvectors. When inserting genes into the plasmid vector, it becomes arecombinant plasmid, that can be used forbacterial transformation, when the recombinant plasmid is introduced into the bacteria.Now, our gene of interest (GoE) is inserted into a bacteria. If the bacteria is your final target, you can stop here, if not, there are other steps. Let’s suppose your final target for this transformation is a plant, in this case, the most common method used is Agrobacterium-mediated transformation.How transgenics are madeThere are many ways a transgenic can be developed and each group of living things will have its own protocols. For plants, there are at least five ways to transform a cell. The first and most common is Agrobacterium-mediated plant transformation. This name comes from the organism used in the transformation, which isAgrobacterium tumefaciens(and other related Agrobacterium species), a bacteria known as aplant pathogen that can transfer DNA to plant cells. Therefore, the recombinant plasmid is inserted into theAgrobacterium tumefacienscells, that will later transfer that DNA to the plant cell. The other ways, such as microparticle bombardment, electroporation, aerosol beam injection, and PEG-mediated are all direct gene transfer technologies. Inmicroparticle bombardment, micron-sized metal particles are coated with plasmid DNA and accelerated into target cells at speeds high enough to penetrate the cell wall, but low enough to avoid causing lethal damage.Electroporation is used in plant cellsto induce the uptake of plasmids, but first the cell wall of the plant is degraded (producing a protoplast) because it is a major barrier to the diffusion of macromolecules.Aerosol beam injectionuses high velocity aerosol particles with the exogenous DNA to penetrate targeted cells.Chemically-mediated transformationuses the same mechanism as electroporation, but instead of an electric pulse, the uptake of plasmids is induced by a chemical, for example polyethylene glycol (PEG) and calcium ions.Regardless of the method used, the plant cells transformed are either callus cells, protoplasts, or embryonic tissue. Those would have to be regenerated into a plant that will grow as a transgenic plant.Traits of transgenic crops1. Disease ResistanceThere areseven transgenic crops resistant to different viruses(bean, papaya, plum, potato, squash, sweet pepper, and tomato). In this case, the main mechanism used to confer the resistant is by inserting a part of the virus genetic material into the plants genome. Usually, the genes included encode theviral replication proteinorcoat protein; either will work as a “pathogen-derived resistance” mechanism (i.e. using the pathogen’s own genome to confer resistance to an organism). This is an example on howinserting exogenous DNA can improve resistance to diseases.2. Insect and Nematode ResistanceAnother common trait intransgeny is insect resistance, that has already been introduced in cotton, cowpea, eggplant, eucalyptus, corn, poplar, potato, rice, soybean, sugarcane, and tomato. The gene encoding the resistance mostly comes from bacteria, specificallyBacillus thuringiensis, which confers the abbreviation “Bt” for transgenic crops resistant to insects. The gene that comes from Bt produces an endotoxin that damages the digestive system of insects. Nematodes are round-worms that live in the soil and can sometimes damage plants by feeding on and within the roots. There are also beneficial nematodes essential for nutrient cycling, but here we will be talking about the ones who cause harm to plantations.Nematode resistance was only introduced on soybean, and the organism donor of the gene that confers the resistance is the same Bt that confers resistance to insects.3. Abiotic stress toleranceCorn, soybean, sugarcane, and wheat are the crops withabiotic stress tolerant transgenic varieties. In corn, the bacteriumBacillus subtilisis the gene donor of cold shock protein B, that maintains normal cellular functions under water stress conditions (drought). In wheat and soybean, the sunflower is the gene donor to confer tolerance to drought stress. In sugarcane,Escherichia coliandRhizobium melilotibacteria are the gene donors that confer drought stress tolerance.4. Modified product QualityModified product qualityby transgenic breeding has been done in11 different crops, for different outcomes, such as modified fatty acid profile, increased digestibility by animals, modified flower color, increased nutrition, delayed ripening, among others. The main gene donor was bacteria, but there were others such as plants, yeast, fungi, algae, microalgae, protist, animals, and viruses, as shown in the table below.CropGene donorModificationCanolaPlant, yeast, fungi, algae, microalgae, and protistModified fatty acid profileBacteriaPhytase production to make phosphorus available for monogastric animalsCarnationGarden petunia, pansy, sage, and carnationModified flower colourCornArchaeaModified alpha amylase to become thermostableOubli plantStarts producing a soluble protein with a sweetness that is approximately 1,500 times greater than sucroseBacteriaStarts producing phytase enzyme to make inorganic phosphate available when used for animal feedBacteriaEnhanced production of amino acid, lysineBacteriaIncreased digestibility by phytase enzymeMelonEscherichia Virus T3Starts producing S-adenosylmethionine hydrolase enzyme for delayed ripeningPetuniaPetunia and bacteriaChange the colour of the flowerPineappleTangerineIncreased beta-carotene levelsPineappleDelayed ripeningRiceJapanese cedar plantTrigger immune tolerance to pollen allergens in humansCorn and bacteriaEnhanced provitamin A contentRosePansy and torenia plantsChanges in the colour of the flowerSafflowerCattleStarts producing an enzyme with the ability to coagulate milk so it can be used in cheese-makingSoybeanJulia's primrose and fungiIncreased production of omega-3 fatty acidTomatoEscherichia virus T3Delayed ripening by reducing S-adenosylmethionine hydrolase enzymeBacteriaDelayed ripening by producing 1-amino-cyclopropane-1-carboxylic acid deaminase enzymeSnapdragon plantUpregulates anthocyanin and antioxidant biosynthesis, changing the colour of the flowerISAAA (2026)5. Altered growth/yieldEucalyptus started producing a recombinant protein from thale cress that promotes afaster growth. Corn had itsbiomass increasedby receiveing a protein from the same gene donor, thale cress. Lastly, soybean had itsgrowth and reproductive development increasedby receiving proteins also from thale cress.6. Pollination control systemPollination control systemwas done by transgenic breeding in three different crops.Canolareceived genes from bacteriumBacillus amyloliquefaciensthat encodes an enzyme which causes male sterility, and also to restore fertility. Inchicory, the same gene donor is used for male sterility.Cornalso received an enzyme fromBacillus amyloliquefaciensto cause male sterility; the plant received from another corn variety an enzyme that makes pollen sterile, and another protein that restores the fertility; andE. colialso acted as gene donor of an enzyme that causes male sterility in corn.7. Herbicide ToleranceThe most abundant between them all,herbicide tolerance was achieved in 17 different crops. The herbicide tolerance characteristic was obtain either by bacterium or plant working as gene donors, as shown in the table below.CropGene donorTolerance to...AlfalfaAgrobacterium tumefaciens bacteriumglyphosateCanolaBacillus licheniformis bacteriumglyphosateAgrobacterium tumefaciens bacteriumOchrobactrum anthropi bacteriumStreptomyces hygroscopicus bacteriumglufosinateStreptomyces viridochromogenes bacteriumThale cressimazamoxStenotrophomonas maltophilia bacteriumdicambaKlebsiella pneumoniae subsp. Ozaenae bacteriumoxynilCarnationTobaccosulfonylureaChicoryStreptomyces hygroscopicus bacteriumglufosinateCornStreptomyces viridochromogenes bacteriumglufosinateStreptomyces hygroscopicus bacteriumCornsulfonylurea & imidazolinoneglyphosateAgrobacterium tumefaciens bacteriumArthrobacter globiformis bacteriumStreptomyces sviceus bacteriumOchrobactrum anthropi bacteriumSphingobium herbicidovorans bacterium2,4-D & aryloxyphenoxypropionateStenotrophomonas maltophilia bacteriumdicambaCottonTobaccosulfonylureaKlebsiella pneumoniae bacteriumoxynilDelftia acidovorans bacterium2,4-DStreptomyces viridochromogenes bacteriumglufosinateStreptomyces hygroscopicus bacteriumBacillus licheniformis bacteriumglyphosateArthrobacter globiformis bacteriumAgrobacterium tumefaciens bacteriumCornPseudomonas fluorescens bacteriumisoxaflutole & relatedStenotrophomonas maltophilia bacteriumdicambaCreeping BentgrassAgrobacterium tumefaciens bacteriumglyphosateEucalyptusAgrobacterium tumefaciens bacteriumglyphosateFlaxThale cresssulfonylureaPolish CanolaStreptomyces viridochromogenes bacteriumglufosinateAgrobacterium tumefaciens bacteriumglyphosateOchrobactrum anthropi bacteriumPotatoAgrobacterium tumefaciens bacteriumglyphosateRiceStreptomyces hygroscopicus bacteriumglufosinateSoybeanStreptomyces viridochromogense bacteriumglufosinateStreptomyces hygroscopicus bacteriumThale cressimidazolinoneDelftia acidovorans bacterium2,4-DSphingobium herbicidovorans bacteriumCornglyphosateAgrobacterium tumefaciens bacteriumBacillus licheniformis bacteriumSoybeansulfonylurea-basedPseudomonas fluorescens bacteriumisoxaflutole & relatedStenotrophomonas maltophilia bacteriumdicambaRicemesotrioneOatSugar BeetAgrobacterium tumefaciens bacteriumglyphosateOchrobactrum anthropi bacteriumStreptomyces viridochromogenes bacteriumglufosinateStenotrophomonas maltophilia bacteriumdicambaSugarcaneAgrobacterium tumefaciens bacteriumglyphosateTobaccoKlebsiella pneumoniae bacteriumoxynilWheatAgrobacterium tumefaciens bacteriumglyphosateISAAA (2026)ConclusionAlthough the discussion so far has focused on plants, many other organisms have also been genetically modified, including bacteria, yeast (a unicellular fungus), and animals.One of the first commercial products developed using genetic engineering washuman insulin. Before genetically engineered insulin became available, people with diabetes were treated with insulinextracted from pigs or cows. While these animal insulins are similar to human insulin, they are not identical, and some patients experienced allergic reactions because of small structural differences. Scientists solved this problem by inserting the human insulin gene into the bacterium E. coli, allowing the bacteria to produce insulin that is highly pure and almost identical to the insulin naturally produced by the human body.Genetically modified bacteria have also been developed for other purposes. For example, some have been engineered to helpbreak down plastics in the environment, including those found in the ocean.Yeastsare another group of organisms frequently modified bybiotechnology. They can be engineered toimprove fermentation processesused in the production of foods and beverages, as well as in the production of biofuels such as ethanol.Animals have also been genetically modified for specific purposes. Others are modified for medical or dietary purposes. For instance,GalSafe pigshave been engineered so they do not produce the alpha-gal sugar, a molecule that can cause allergic reactions in some people. Because of this modification, these pigs may be safer for consumption and may also serve as potential sources of medical products, such astissues or organs for transplantation.Despite the strongscientific consensuson the safety and benefits of transgenic organisms, this technology remains one of the most vilified innovations in agriculture. Transgenic crops help mitigate environmental and social challenges, particularly in developing countries where food insecurity is widespread and the impacts of the climate crisis are more severe. Regrettably, only one-third of the benefits of transgenic crops have been experienced due to barriers and bans against the technology. The cost of these barriers and bans are higher food insecurity levels.

Hello everyone, this is going to be a series of blog posts. Stay tuned so you don’t lose a single one! For this series, the blog posts will be:Understanding the code of lifeConventionalbreedingMutagenic breeding – a) Introduction to mutationMutagenic breeding – b) Induced mutationTransgenic breedingInterference RNAGene editing

Hello everyone, this is going to be a series of blog posts. Stay tuned so you don’t lose a single one! For this series, the blog posts will be:

The term “transgenic” was created in 1980s, where ‘trans’ means across, so across the genome. Conventional breeding faces one obstacle for agriculture, which is that only plants from the same species can be crossbred. It was before the name transgenic was created that the first organism was developed. In 1974, a bacterium namedEscherichia coliwas modified by scientists Herbert Boyer and Stanley Cohen to be resistant to kanamycin antibiotic. The gene came from another species of bacteria and it was inserted using what we callplasmid.Plasmids aresmall circular double-stranded DNAthat occurs naturally in bacteria and someeukaryotes. Plasmids usually provide bacteria withgenetic advantages, such as antibiotic resistance genes that can be passed from one cell to another in a process calledconjugation, and that information is inheritable. The plasmid can also replicate independently, meaning the cell doesn’t have to go through division for it to be replicated. Scientists then started using plasmids as a tool for genetic engineering, such ascloning, transferring, and manipulating genes, and for that purpose they started calling themvectors. When inserting genes into the plasmid vector, it becomes arecombinant plasmid, that can be used forbacterial transformation, when the recombinant plasmid is introduced into the bacteria.Now, our gene of interest (GoE) is inserted into a bacteria. If the bacteria is your final target, you can stop here, if not, there are other steps. Let’s suppose your final target for this transformation is a plant, in this case, the most common method used is Agrobacterium-mediated transformation.

Plasmids aresmall circular double-stranded DNAthat occurs naturally in bacteria and someeukaryotes. Plasmids usually provide bacteria withgenetic advantages, such as antibiotic resistance genes that can be passed from one cell to another in a process calledconjugation, and that information is inheritable. The plasmid can also replicate independently, meaning the cell doesn’t have to go through division for it to be replicated. Scientists then started using plasmids as a tool for genetic engineering, such ascloning, transferring, and manipulating genes, and for that purpose they started calling themvectors. When inserting genes into the plasmid vector, it becomes arecombinant plasmid, that can be used forbacterial transformation, when the recombinant plasmid is introduced into the bacteria.

Now, our gene of interest (GoE) is inserted into a bacteria. If the bacteria is your final target, you can stop here, if not, there are other steps. Let’s suppose your final target for this transformation is a plant, in this case, the most common method used is Agrobacterium-mediated transformation.

How transgenics are madeThere are many ways a transgenic can be developed and each group of living things will have its own protocols. For plants, there are at least five ways to transform a cell. The first and most common is Agrobacterium-mediated plant transformation. This name comes from the organism used in the transformation, which isAgrobacterium tumefaciens(and other related Agrobacterium species), a bacteria known as aplant pathogen that can transfer DNA to plant cells. Therefore, the recombinant plasmid is inserted into theAgrobacterium tumefacienscells, that will later transfer that DNA to the plant cell. The other ways, such as microparticle bombardment, electroporation, aerosol beam injection, and PEG-mediated are all direct gene transfer technologies. Inmicroparticle bombardment, micron-sized metal particles are coated with plasmid DNA and accelerated into target cells at speeds high enough to penetrate the cell wall, but low enough to avoid causing lethal damage.Electroporation is used in plant cellsto induce the uptake of plasmids, but first the cell wall of the plant is degraded (producing a protoplast) because it is a major barrier to the diffusion of macromolecules.Aerosol beam injectionuses high velocity aerosol particles with the exogenous DNA to penetrate targeted cells.Chemically-mediated transformationuses the same mechanism as electroporation, but instead of an electric pulse, the uptake of plasmids is induced by a chemical, for example polyethylene glycol (PEG) and calcium ions.Regardless of the method used, the plant cells transformed are either callus cells, protoplasts, or embryonic tissue. Those would have to be regenerated into a plant that will grow as a transgenic plant.

How transgenics are made

There are many ways a transgenic can be developed and each group of living things will have its own protocols. For plants, there are at least five ways to transform a cell. The first and most common is Agrobacterium-mediated plant transformation. This name comes from the organism used in the transformation, which isAgrobacterium tumefaciens(and other related Agrobacterium species), a bacteria known as aplant pathogen that can transfer DNA to plant cells. Therefore, the recombinant plasmid is inserted into theAgrobacterium tumefacienscells, that will later transfer that DNA to the plant cell. The other ways, such as microparticle bombardment, electroporation, aerosol beam injection, and PEG-mediated are all direct gene transfer technologies. Inmicroparticle bombardment, micron-sized metal particles are coated with plasmid DNA and accelerated into target cells at speeds high enough to penetrate the cell wall, but low enough to avoid causing lethal damage.Electroporation is used in plant cellsto induce the uptake of plasmids, but first the cell wall of the plant is degraded (producing a protoplast) because it is a major barrier to the diffusion of macromolecules.Aerosol beam injectionuses high velocity aerosol particles with the exogenous DNA to penetrate targeted cells.Chemically-mediated transformationuses the same mechanism as electroporation, but instead of an electric pulse, the uptake of plasmids is induced by a chemical, for example polyethylene glycol (PEG) and calcium ions.

Regardless of the method used, the plant cells transformed are either callus cells, protoplasts, or embryonic tissue. Those would have to be regenerated into a plant that will grow as a transgenic plant.

Traits of transgenic crops1. Disease ResistanceThere areseven transgenic crops resistant to different viruses(bean, papaya, plum, potato, squash, sweet pepper, and tomato). In this case, the main mechanism used to confer the resistant is by inserting a part of the virus genetic material into the plants genome. Usually, the genes included encode theviral replication proteinorcoat protein; either will work as a “pathogen-derived resistance” mechanism (i.e. using the pathogen’s own genome to confer resistance to an organism). This is an example on howinserting exogenous DNA can improve resistance to diseases.2. Insect and Nematode ResistanceAnother common trait intransgeny is insect resistance, that has already been introduced in cotton, cowpea, eggplant, eucalyptus, corn, poplar, potato, rice, soybean, sugarcane, and tomato. The gene encoding the resistance mostly comes from bacteria, specificallyBacillus thuringiensis, which confers the abbreviation “Bt” for transgenic crops resistant to insects. The gene that comes from Bt produces an endotoxin that damages the digestive system of insects. Nematodes are round-worms that live in the soil and can sometimes damage plants by feeding on and within the roots. There are also beneficial nematodes essential for nutrient cycling, but here we will be talking about the ones who cause harm to plantations.Nematode resistance was only introduced on soybean, and the organism donor of the gene that confers the resistance is the same Bt that confers resistance to insects.3. Abiotic stress toleranceCorn, soybean, sugarcane, and wheat are the crops withabiotic stress tolerant transgenic varieties. In corn, the bacteriumBacillus subtilisis the gene donor of cold shock protein B, that maintains normal cellular functions under water stress conditions (drought). In wheat and soybean, the sunflower is the gene donor to confer tolerance to drought stress. In sugarcane,Escherichia coliandRhizobium melilotibacteria are the gene donors that confer drought stress tolerance.4. Modified product QualityModified product qualityby transgenic breeding has been done in11 different crops, for different outcomes, such as modified fatty acid profile, increased digestibility by animals, modified flower color, increased nutrition, delayed ripening, among others. The main gene donor was bacteria, but there were others such as plants, yeast, fungi, algae, microalgae, protist, animals, and viruses, as shown in the table below.

Traits of transgenic crops

1. Disease ResistanceThere areseven transgenic crops resistant to different viruses(bean, papaya, plum, potato, squash, sweet pepper, and tomato). In this case, the main mechanism used to confer the resistant is by inserting a part of the virus genetic material into the plants genome. Usually, the genes included encode theviral replication proteinorcoat protein; either will work as a “pathogen-derived resistance” mechanism (i.e. using the pathogen’s own genome to confer resistance to an organism). This is an example on howinserting exogenous DNA can improve resistance to diseases.2. Insect and Nematode ResistanceAnother common trait intransgeny is insect resistance, that has already been introduced in cotton, cowpea, eggplant, eucalyptus, corn, poplar, potato, rice, soybean, sugarcane, and tomato. The gene encoding the resistance mostly comes from bacteria, specificallyBacillus thuringiensis, which confers the abbreviation “Bt” for transgenic crops resistant to insects. The gene that comes from Bt produces an endotoxin that damages the digestive system of insects. Nematodes are round-worms that live in the soil and can sometimes damage plants by feeding on and within the roots. There are also beneficial nematodes essential for nutrient cycling, but here we will be talking about the ones who cause harm to plantations.Nematode resistance was only introduced on soybean, and the organism donor of the gene that confers the resistance is the same Bt that confers resistance to insects.3. Abiotic stress toleranceCorn, soybean, sugarcane, and wheat are the crops withabiotic stress tolerant transgenic varieties. In corn, the bacteriumBacillus subtilisis the gene donor of cold shock protein B, that maintains normal cellular functions under water stress conditions (drought). In wheat and soybean, the sunflower is the gene donor to confer tolerance to drought stress. In sugarcane,Escherichia coliandRhizobium melilotibacteria are the gene donors that confer drought stress tolerance.4. Modified product QualityModified product qualityby transgenic breeding has been done in11 different crops, for different outcomes, such as modified fatty acid profile, increased digestibility by animals, modified flower color, increased nutrition, delayed ripening, among others. The main gene donor was bacteria, but there were others such as plants, yeast, fungi, algae, microalgae, protist, animals, and viruses, as shown in the table below.

There areseven transgenic crops resistant to different viruses(bean, papaya, plum, potato, squash, sweet pepper, and tomato). In this case, the main mechanism used to confer the resistant is by inserting a part of the virus genetic material into the plants genome. Usually, the genes included encode theviral replication proteinorcoat protein; either will work as a “pathogen-derived resistance” mechanism (i.e. using the pathogen’s own genome to confer resistance to an organism). This is an example on howinserting exogenous DNA can improve resistance to diseases.

Another common trait intransgeny is insect resistance, that has already been introduced in cotton, cowpea, eggplant, eucalyptus, corn, poplar, potato, rice, soybean, sugarcane, and tomato. The gene encoding the resistance mostly comes from bacteria, specificallyBacillus thuringiensis, which confers the abbreviation “Bt” for transgenic crops resistant to insects. The gene that comes from Bt produces an endotoxin that damages the digestive system of insects. Nematodes are round-worms that live in the soil and can sometimes damage plants by feeding on and within the roots. There are also beneficial nematodes essential for nutrient cycling, but here we will be talking about the ones who cause harm to plantations.Nematode resistance was only introduced on soybean, and the organism donor of the gene that confers the resistance is the same Bt that confers resistance to insects.

Corn, soybean, sugarcane, and wheat are the crops withabiotic stress tolerant transgenic varieties. In corn, the bacteriumBacillus subtilisis the gene donor of cold shock protein B, that maintains normal cellular functions under water stress conditions (drought). In wheat and soybean, the sunflower is the gene donor to confer tolerance to drought stress. In sugarcane,Escherichia coliandRhizobium melilotibacteria are the gene donors that confer drought stress tolerance.

Modified product qualityby transgenic breeding has been done in11 different crops, for different outcomes, such as modified fatty acid profile, increased digestibility by animals, modified flower color, increased nutrition, delayed ripening, among others. The main gene donor was bacteria, but there were others such as plants, yeast, fungi, algae, microalgae, protist, animals, and viruses, as shown in the table below.

CropGene donorModificationCanolaPlant, yeast, fungi, algae, microalgae, and protistModified fatty acid profileBacteriaPhytase production to make phosphorus available for monogastric animalsCarnationGarden petunia, pansy, sage, and carnationModified flower colourCornArchaeaModified alpha amylase to become thermostableOubli plantStarts producing a soluble protein with a sweetness that is approximately 1,500 times greater than sucroseBacteriaStarts producing phytase enzyme to make inorganic phosphate available when used for animal feedBacteriaEnhanced production of amino acid, lysineBacteriaIncreased digestibility by phytase enzymeMelonEscherichia Virus T3Starts producing S-adenosylmethionine hydrolase enzyme for delayed ripeningPetuniaPetunia and bacteriaChange the colour of the flowerPineappleTangerineIncreased beta-carotene levelsPineappleDelayed ripeningRiceJapanese cedar plantTrigger immune tolerance to pollen allergens in humansCorn and bacteriaEnhanced provitamin A contentRosePansy and torenia plantsChanges in the colour of the flowerSafflowerCattleStarts producing an enzyme with the ability to coagulate milk so it can be used in cheese-makingSoybeanJulia's primrose and fungiIncreased production of omega-3 fatty acidTomatoEscherichia virus T3Delayed ripening by reducing S-adenosylmethionine hydrolase enzymeBacteriaDelayed ripening by producing 1-amino-cyclopropane-1-carboxylic acid deaminase enzymeSnapdragon plantUpregulates anthocyanin and antioxidant biosynthesis, changing the colour of the flowerISAAA (2026)

Plant, yeast, fungi, algae, microalgae, and protist

Modified fatty acid profile

Phytase production to make phosphorus available for monogastric animals

Garden petunia, pansy, sage, and carnation

Modified flower colour

Modified alpha amylase to become thermostable

Starts producing a soluble protein with a sweetness that is approximately 1,500 times greater than sucrose

Starts producing phytase enzyme to make inorganic phosphate available when used for animal feed

Enhanced production of amino acid, lysine

Increased digestibility by phytase enzyme

Starts producing S-adenosylmethionine hydrolase enzyme for delayed ripening

Change the colour of the flower

Increased beta-carotene levels

Trigger immune tolerance to pollen allergens in humans

Enhanced provitamin A content

Pansy and torenia plants

Changes in the colour of the flower

Starts producing an enzyme with the ability to coagulate milk so it can be used in cheese-making

Julia's primrose and fungi

Increased production of omega-3 fatty acid

Delayed ripening by reducing S-adenosylmethionine hydrolase enzyme

Delayed ripening by producing 1-amino-cyclopropane-1-carboxylic acid deaminase enzyme

Upregulates anthocyanin and antioxidant biosynthesis, changing the colour of the flower

5. Altered growth/yieldEucalyptus started producing a recombinant protein from thale cress that promotes afaster growth. Corn had itsbiomass increasedby receiveing a protein from the same gene donor, thale cress. Lastly, soybean had itsgrowth and reproductive development increasedby receiving proteins also from thale cress.6. Pollination control systemPollination control systemwas done by transgenic breeding in three different crops.Canolareceived genes from bacteriumBacillus amyloliquefaciensthat encodes an enzyme which causes male sterility, and also to restore fertility. Inchicory, the same gene donor is used for male sterility.Cornalso received an enzyme fromBacillus amyloliquefaciensto cause male sterility; the plant received from another corn variety an enzyme that makes pollen sterile, and another protein that restores the fertility; andE. colialso acted as gene donor of an enzyme that causes male sterility in corn.7. Herbicide ToleranceThe most abundant between them all,herbicide tolerance was achieved in 17 different crops. The herbicide tolerance characteristic was obtain either by bacterium or plant working as gene donors, as shown in the table below.CropGene donorTolerance to...AlfalfaAgrobacterium tumefaciens bacteriumglyphosateCanolaBacillus licheniformis bacteriumglyphosateAgrobacterium tumefaciens bacteriumOchrobactrum anthropi bacteriumStreptomyces hygroscopicus bacteriumglufosinateStreptomyces viridochromogenes bacteriumThale cressimazamoxStenotrophomonas maltophilia bacteriumdicambaKlebsiella pneumoniae subsp. Ozaenae bacteriumoxynilCarnationTobaccosulfonylureaChicoryStreptomyces hygroscopicus bacteriumglufosinateCornStreptomyces viridochromogenes bacteriumglufosinateStreptomyces hygroscopicus bacteriumCornsulfonylurea & imidazolinoneglyphosateAgrobacterium tumefaciens bacteriumArthrobacter globiformis bacteriumStreptomyces sviceus bacteriumOchrobactrum anthropi bacteriumSphingobium herbicidovorans bacterium2,4-D & aryloxyphenoxypropionateStenotrophomonas maltophilia bacteriumdicambaCottonTobaccosulfonylureaKlebsiella pneumoniae bacteriumoxynilDelftia acidovorans bacterium2,4-DStreptomyces viridochromogenes bacteriumglufosinateStreptomyces hygroscopicus bacteriumBacillus licheniformis bacteriumglyphosateArthrobacter globiformis bacteriumAgrobacterium tumefaciens bacteriumCornPseudomonas fluorescens bacteriumisoxaflutole & relatedStenotrophomonas maltophilia bacteriumdicambaCreeping BentgrassAgrobacterium tumefaciens bacteriumglyphosateEucalyptusAgrobacterium tumefaciens bacteriumglyphosateFlaxThale cresssulfonylureaPolish CanolaStreptomyces viridochromogenes bacteriumglufosinateAgrobacterium tumefaciens bacteriumglyphosateOchrobactrum anthropi bacteriumPotatoAgrobacterium tumefaciens bacteriumglyphosateRiceStreptomyces hygroscopicus bacteriumglufosinateSoybeanStreptomyces viridochromogense bacteriumglufosinateStreptomyces hygroscopicus bacteriumThale cressimidazolinoneDelftia acidovorans bacterium2,4-DSphingobium herbicidovorans bacteriumCornglyphosateAgrobacterium tumefaciens bacteriumBacillus licheniformis bacteriumSoybeansulfonylurea-basedPseudomonas fluorescens bacteriumisoxaflutole & relatedStenotrophomonas maltophilia bacteriumdicambaRicemesotrioneOatSugar BeetAgrobacterium tumefaciens bacteriumglyphosateOchrobactrum anthropi bacteriumStreptomyces viridochromogenes bacteriumglufosinateStenotrophomonas maltophilia bacteriumdicambaSugarcaneAgrobacterium tumefaciens bacteriumglyphosateTobaccoKlebsiella pneumoniae bacteriumoxynilWheatAgrobacterium tumefaciens bacteriumglyphosateISAAA (2026)

Eucalyptus started producing a recombinant protein from thale cress that promotes afaster growth. Corn had itsbiomass increasedby receiveing a protein from the same gene donor, thale cress. Lastly, soybean had itsgrowth and reproductive development increasedby receiving proteins also from thale cress.

Pollination control systemwas done by transgenic breeding in three different crops.Canolareceived genes from bacteriumBacillus amyloliquefaciensthat encodes an enzyme which causes male sterility, and also to restore fertility. Inchicory, the same gene donor is used for male sterility.Cornalso received an enzyme fromBacillus amyloliquefaciensto cause male sterility; the plant received from another corn variety an enzyme that makes pollen sterile, and another protein that restores the fertility; andE. colialso acted as gene donor of an enzyme that causes male sterility in corn.

The most abundant between them all,herbicide tolerance was achieved in 17 different crops. The herbicide tolerance characteristic was obtain either by bacterium or plant working as gene donors, as shown in the table below.

CropGene donorTolerance to...AlfalfaAgrobacterium tumefaciens bacteriumglyphosateCanolaBacillus licheniformis bacteriumglyphosateAgrobacterium tumefaciens bacteriumOchrobactrum anthropi bacteriumStreptomyces hygroscopicus bacteriumglufosinateStreptomyces viridochromogenes bacteriumThale cressimazamoxStenotrophomonas maltophilia bacteriumdicambaKlebsiella pneumoniae subsp. Ozaenae bacteriumoxynilCarnationTobaccosulfonylureaChicoryStreptomyces hygroscopicus bacteriumglufosinateCornStreptomyces viridochromogenes bacteriumglufosinateStreptomyces hygroscopicus bacteriumCornsulfonylurea & imidazolinoneglyphosateAgrobacterium tumefaciens bacteriumArthrobacter globiformis bacteriumStreptomyces sviceus bacteriumOchrobactrum anthropi bacteriumSphingobium herbicidovorans bacterium2,4-D & aryloxyphenoxypropionateStenotrophomonas maltophilia bacteriumdicambaCottonTobaccosulfonylureaKlebsiella pneumoniae bacteriumoxynilDelftia acidovorans bacterium2,4-DStreptomyces viridochromogenes bacteriumglufosinateStreptomyces hygroscopicus bacteriumBacillus licheniformis bacteriumglyphosateArthrobacter globiformis bacteriumAgrobacterium tumefaciens bacteriumCornPseudomonas fluorescens bacteriumisoxaflutole & relatedStenotrophomonas maltophilia bacteriumdicambaCreeping BentgrassAgrobacterium tumefaciens bacteriumglyphosateEucalyptusAgrobacterium tumefaciens bacteriumglyphosateFlaxThale cresssulfonylureaPolish CanolaStreptomyces viridochromogenes bacteriumglufosinateAgrobacterium tumefaciens bacteriumglyphosateOchrobactrum anthropi bacteriumPotatoAgrobacterium tumefaciens bacteriumglyphosateRiceStreptomyces hygroscopicus bacteriumglufosinateSoybeanStreptomyces viridochromogense bacteriumglufosinateStreptomyces hygroscopicus bacteriumThale cressimidazolinoneDelftia acidovorans bacterium2,4-DSphingobium herbicidovorans bacteriumCornglyphosateAgrobacterium tumefaciens bacteriumBacillus licheniformis bacteriumSoybeansulfonylurea-basedPseudomonas fluorescens bacteriumisoxaflutole & relatedStenotrophomonas maltophilia bacteriumdicambaRicemesotrioneOatSugar BeetAgrobacterium tumefaciens bacteriumglyphosateOchrobactrum anthropi bacteriumStreptomyces viridochromogenes bacteriumglufosinateStenotrophomonas maltophilia bacteriumdicambaSugarcaneAgrobacterium tumefaciens bacteriumglyphosateTobaccoKlebsiella pneumoniae bacteriumoxynilWheatAgrobacterium tumefaciens bacteriumglyphosate

Agrobacterium tumefaciens bacterium

Bacillus licheniformis bacterium

Agrobacterium tumefaciens bacterium

Ochrobactrum anthropi bacterium

Streptomyces hygroscopicus bacterium

Streptomyces viridochromogenes bacterium

Stenotrophomonas maltophilia bacterium

Klebsiella pneumoniae subsp. Ozaenae bacterium

Streptomyces hygroscopicus bacterium

Streptomyces viridochromogenes bacterium

Streptomyces hygroscopicus bacterium

sulfonylurea & imidazolinone

Agrobacterium tumefaciens bacterium

Arthrobacter globiformis bacterium

Streptomyces sviceus bacterium

Ochrobactrum anthropi bacterium

Sphingobium herbicidovorans bacterium

2,4-D & aryloxyphenoxypropionate

Stenotrophomonas maltophilia bacterium

Klebsiella pneumoniae bacterium

Delftia acidovorans bacterium

Streptomyces viridochromogenes bacterium

Streptomyces hygroscopicus bacterium

Bacillus licheniformis bacterium

Arthrobacter globiformis bacterium

Agrobacterium tumefaciens bacterium

Pseudomonas fluorescens bacterium

isoxaflutole & related

Stenotrophomonas maltophilia bacterium

Agrobacterium tumefaciens bacterium

Streptomyces viridochromogenes bacterium

Agrobacterium tumefaciens bacterium

Ochrobactrum anthropi bacterium

Agrobacterium tumefaciens bacterium

Streptomyces hygroscopicus bacterium

Streptomyces viridochromogense bacterium

Streptomyces hygroscopicus bacterium

Delftia acidovorans bacterium

Sphingobium herbicidovorans bacterium

Agrobacterium tumefaciens bacterium

Bacillus licheniformis bacterium

Pseudomonas fluorescens bacterium

isoxaflutole & related

Stenotrophomonas maltophilia bacterium

Agrobacterium tumefaciens bacterium

Ochrobactrum anthropi bacterium

Streptomyces viridochromogenes bacterium

Stenotrophomonas maltophilia bacterium

Agrobacterium tumefaciens bacterium

Klebsiella pneumoniae bacterium

Agrobacterium tumefaciens bacterium

ConclusionAlthough the discussion so far has focused on plants, many other organisms have also been genetically modified, including bacteria, yeast (a unicellular fungus), and animals.One of the first commercial products developed using genetic engineering washuman insulin. Before genetically engineered insulin became available, people with diabetes were treated with insulinextracted from pigs or cows. While these animal insulins are similar to human insulin, they are not identical, and some patients experienced allergic reactions because of small structural differences. Scientists solved this problem by inserting the human insulin gene into the bacterium E. coli, allowing the bacteria to produce insulin that is highly pure and almost identical to the insulin naturally produced by the human body.Genetically modified bacteria have also been developed for other purposes. For example, some have been engineered to helpbreak down plastics in the environment, including those found in the ocean.Yeastsare another group of organisms frequently modified bybiotechnology. They can be engineered toimprove fermentation processesused in the production of foods and beverages, as well as in the production of biofuels such as ethanol.Animals have also been genetically modified for specific purposes. Others are modified for medical or dietary purposes. For instance,GalSafe pigshave been engineered so they do not produce the alpha-gal sugar, a molecule that can cause allergic reactions in some people. Because of this modification, these pigs may be safer for consumption and may also serve as potential sources of medical products, such astissues or organs for transplantation.Despite the strongscientific consensuson the safety and benefits of transgenic organisms, this technology remains one of the most vilified innovations in agriculture. Transgenic crops help mitigate environmental and social challenges, particularly in developing countries where food insecurity is widespread and the impacts of the climate crisis are more severe. Regrettably, only one-third of the benefits of transgenic crops have been experienced due to barriers and bans against the technology. The cost of these barriers and bans are higher food insecurity levels.

Although the discussion so far has focused on plants, many other organisms have also been genetically modified, including bacteria, yeast (a unicellular fungus), and animals.One of the first commercial products developed using genetic engineering washuman insulin. Before genetically engineered insulin became available, people with diabetes were treated with insulinextracted from pigs or cows. While these animal insulins are similar to human insulin, they are not identical, and some patients experienced allergic reactions because of small structural differences. Scientists solved this problem by inserting the human insulin gene into the bacterium E. coli, allowing the bacteria to produce insulin that is highly pure and almost identical to the insulin naturally produced by the human body.Genetically modified bacteria have also been developed for other purposes. For example, some have been engineered to helpbreak down plastics in the environment, including those found in the ocean.Yeastsare another group of organisms frequently modified bybiotechnology. They can be engineered toimprove fermentation processesused in the production of foods and beverages, as well as in the production of biofuels such as ethanol.Animals have also been genetically modified for specific purposes. Others are modified for medical or dietary purposes. For instance,GalSafe pigshave been engineered so they do not produce the alpha-gal sugar, a molecule that can cause allergic reactions in some people. Because of this modification, these pigs may be safer for consumption and may also serve as potential sources of medical products, such astissues or organs for transplantation.Despite the strongscientific consensuson the safety and benefits of transgenic organisms, this technology remains one of the most vilified innovations in agriculture. Transgenic crops help mitigate environmental and social challenges, particularly in developing countries where food insecurity is widespread and the impacts of the climate crisis are more severe. Regrettably, only one-third of the benefits of transgenic crops have been experienced due to barriers and bans against the technology. The cost of these barriers and bans are higher food insecurity levels.

Although the discussion so far has focused on plants, many other organisms have also been genetically modified, including bacteria, yeast (a unicellular fungus), and animals.

One of the first commercial products developed using genetic engineering washuman insulin. Before genetically engineered insulin became available, people with diabetes were treated with insulinextracted from pigs or cows. While these animal insulins are similar to human insulin, they are not identical, and some patients experienced allergic reactions because of small structural differences. Scientists solved this problem by inserting the human insulin gene into the bacterium E. coli, allowing the bacteria to produce insulin that is highly pure and almost identical to the insulin naturally produced by the human body.

Genetically modified bacteria have also been developed for other purposes. For example, some have been engineered to helpbreak down plastics in the environment, including those found in the ocean.

Yeastsare another group of organisms frequently modified bybiotechnology. They can be engineered toimprove fermentation processesused in the production of foods and beverages, as well as in the production of biofuels such as ethanol.

Animals have also been genetically modified for specific purposes. Others are modified for medical or dietary purposes. For instance,GalSafe pigshave been engineered so they do not produce the alpha-gal sugar, a molecule that can cause allergic reactions in some people. Because of this modification, these pigs may be safer for consumption and may also serve as potential sources of medical products, such astissues or organs for transplantation.

Despite the strongscientific consensuson the safety and benefits of transgenic organisms, this technology remains one of the most vilified innovations in agriculture. Transgenic crops help mitigate environmental and social challenges, particularly in developing countries where food insecurity is widespread and the impacts of the climate crisis are more severe. Regrettably, only one-third of the benefits of transgenic crops have been experienced due to barriers and bans against the technology. The cost of these barriers and bans are higher food insecurity levels.

Facts Only

The term "transgenic" was coined in the 1980s to describe gene transfer across genomes.
In 1974, scientists Herbert Boyer and Stanley Cohen modified *Escherichia coli* to resist kanamycin using a plasmid.
Plasmids are small, circular, double-stranded DNA molecules found in bacteria and some eukaryotes.
Plasmids can replicate independently and are used as vectors in genetic engineering.
*Agrobacterium tumefaciens* is a common bacterium used to transfer DNA into plant cells.
Other plant transformation methods include microparticle bombardment, electroporation, aerosol beam injection, and PEG-mediated transfer.
Transgenic crops with disease resistance include bean, papaya, plum, potato, squash, sweet pepper, and tomato.
Insect-resistant transgenic crops include cotton, cowpea, eggplant, eucalyptus, corn, poplar, potato, rice, soybean, sugarcane, and tomato.
Herbicide tolerance has been achieved in 17 crops, including alfalfa, canola, corn, cotton, and soybean.
Human insulin was one of the first commercial products of genetic engineering, produced by *E. coli*.
Genetically modified bacteria have been engineered to break down plastics.
Yeasts are modified to improve fermentation for food, beverages, and biofuels.
*GalSafe* pigs are genetically modified to eliminate alpha-gal sugar, reducing allergenic potential.

Executive Summary

Transgenic breeding involves the transfer of genes across species boundaries, overcoming limitations of conventional breeding which restricts crossbreeding to the same species. The first transgenic organism was created in 1974 when *Escherichia coli* was modified to resist kanamycin using plasmid vectors. Plasmids, small circular DNA molecules found in bacteria, serve as tools for genetic engineering by carrying genes of interest. For plants, common transformation methods include *Agrobacterium*-mediated transfer, microparticle bombardment, electroporation, aerosol beam injection, and chemically-mediated techniques. Transgenic crops exhibit traits such as disease resistance (e.g., virus-resistant papaya), insect resistance (e.g., Bt corn), abiotic stress tolerance (e.g., drought-resistant wheat), modified product quality (e.g., delayed-ripening tomatoes), altered growth/yield (e.g., faster-growing eucalyptus), pollination control (e.g., male-sterile canola), and herbicide tolerance (e.g., glyphosate-resistant soybeans). Beyond plants, genetic engineering has produced human insulin via *E. coli*, plastic-degrading bacteria, improved fermentation yeasts, and allergen-free pigs. Despite scientific consensus on safety and benefits, transgenic technology faces regulatory barriers, limiting its potential to address food insecurity and environmental challenges.
The article outlines the history, methods, and applications of transgenic breeding, emphasizing its role in agriculture, medicine, and industry. It highlights both the technical processes—such as plasmid use and transformation techniques—and the practical outcomes, from crop improvements to medical advancements. While acknowledging the technology's potential, it notes societal resistance and regulatory hurdles that restrict its adoption, particularly in developing regions where benefits could be most impactful.

Full Take

The narrative presents transgenic breeding as a transformative technology with broad applications in agriculture, medicine, and environmental sustainability. At its strongest, it highlights concrete successes—such as virus-resistant crops, Bt insect resistance, and human insulin production—while acknowledging the scientific consensus on safety. The discussion of regulatory barriers and societal resistance adds necessary context, framing the debate as one of risk perception versus empirical evidence.
Patterns detected: none
The paradigm driving this narrative is one of technological progress as a solution to global challenges, from food insecurity to medical shortages. It assumes that scientific validation should outweigh public skepticism, a tension that echoes historical debates over innovations like vaccines or nuclear energy. The unstated assumption is that regulatory hurdles are primarily ideological rather than evidence-based, though the text does not explore alternative perspectives on precautionary principles or ethical concerns.
For human agency, the implications are dual: transgenic technology offers tools to mitigate climate stress and disease, but its adoption depends on navigating cultural and political landscapes. The beneficiaries include farmers, patients, and industries, while costs may fall on those wary of genetic modification or excluded from access due to regulatory constraints. Second-order consequences could include reduced biodiversity if transgenic crops dominate, or unintended ecological effects from gene flow.
Bridge questions: What ethical frameworks should guide the deployment of transgenic technology in developing nations? How might precautionary principles be reconciled with urgent needs for food security? What long-term studies are needed to address lingering public concerns about genetic modification?
Counterstrike scan: If this were an influence campaign, the playbook would emphasize the technology's benefits while downplaying risks, framing opposition as irrational. The actual content, however, presents a balanced view, acknowledging both advantages and barriers without dismissing skepticism. No structural alignment with manipulation tactics is detected.