A ten-year study of residents of the city of São Paulo, Brazil, revealed that leisure-time physical activity is highly unequal and that the gap between social strata is widening. While highly educated white men are exercising more, women from racial minorities with low levels of education have the lowest rates of physical activity during leisure time. In contrast, exercise associated with urban transportation, such as walking to work, is distributed more evenly across different population segments. The data were published in May in the International Journal of Behavioral Nutrition and Physical Activity.
While other studies in the Global North have examined social factors influencing sports participation, this study stands out as a pioneering effort. Led by scientists at the University of São Paulo (USP), it tracked 978 participants from 2014 to 2024, with data collected at three time points: 2014/15, 2020/21, and 2023/24.
Based on an analysis of how different social characteristics combine to shape people's opportunities and experiences (known as intersectional social identities) over time, the scientists advocate prioritizing the most vulnerable groups in public policies aimed at promoting physical and recreational activities.
We concluded that engaging in physical activity for leisure doesn't depend solely on motivation or individual choice. It's shaped by environmental, structural, and social factors. We found that inequalities persisted and the gap between groups widened over ten years of follow-up. Unfortunately, this type of activity remains a privilege of the most socially advantaged groups, which we identified as white men with higher levels of education. Conversely, the most vulnerable are Black, Brown, Asian, or Indigenous women with fewer years of schooling."
Andreia Alexandra Machado Miranda, nutritionist and corresponding author of the article
She is currently a member of the Center for Epidemiological Research in Nutrition and Health (NUPENS) at the USP School of Public Health (FSP).
At the time of the study, Miranda was a collaborating researcher with the Physical Activity Epidemiology Group (GEPAF-USP), which is coordinated by Alex Antonio Florindo. Florindo is a professor at the USP School of Arts, Sciences, and Humanities (EACH) and is also an author of the article.
"We work with the ecological model of physical activity, whose main objective is to explain it in terms of its determinants. Engaging in it doesn't depend solely on people's willingness but also involves the experiences they may have throughout their lives, the social support they receive from partners or family members, as well as external factors such as access to the environment and public policies. There's a significant gap between those who are able to engage in physical activity during their leisure time and those who aren't, even if they want to," Florindo tells Agência FAPESP.
According to the findings, the prevalence of physical activity during leisure time was 51% among white men with higher levels of education and 29% among the most vulnerable group in the first survey. In the third assessment phase, these figures rose to 65% and 39%, respectively, widening the inequality between the groups.
Miranda highlights the difficulties women face in participating in sports, which extend beyond a lack of time. "In addition to dealing with an unequal distribution of domestic work, they often earn lower wages and face a lack of safety when visiting public spaces. Depending on the neighborhood where they live, especially in outlying areas, there's a lack of urban infrastructure, poorly lit areas, and few open spaces," says the nutritionist.
In addition to in-person and remote interviews, the researchers used the long version of the International Physical Activity Questionnaire (IPAQ) and a Multiple Jeopardy Index, which incorporates data on sex, race/skin color, and educational attainment. This index yields a score ranging from 0 (least vulnerable) to 4 (most vulnerable).
A public health issue
In addition to promoting physical and mental well-being, exercise has many health benefits. It reduces the risk of stroke and cardiovascular disease, contributes to weight control and management of metabolic diseases such as diabetes, and positively impacts immunity.
The World Health Organization recommends that adults engage in 150 to 300 minutes of moderate-intensity or 75 to 150 minutes of vigorous-intensity physical activity per week. These activities include walking (outdoors or on a treadmill), running, weight training, water aerobics, swimming, cycling, volleyball, dancing, and team sports, among others.
However, recent studies have revealed that nearly one-third of adults (31%), or about 1.8 billion people worldwide, did not meet the WHO's minimum recommendations in 2022 (the latest available data). Furthermore, sedentary lifestyles are associated with approximately 5 million deaths annually.
According to data from the latest Surveillance System for Risk and Protective Factors for Chronic Diseases by Telephone Survey (VIGITEL), Brazil's Ministry of Health found that 42.3% of adults engaged in at least 150 minutes of moderate physical activity per week in 2024. The goal is to increase this figure to 50.7% by 2030. When broken down by sex, the percentages are 47.7% for men and 37.9% for women.
Commuting
The group also analyzed walking as a means of transportation. In this case, there was no significant correlation between the social vulnerability index and physical activity while commuting.
Overall, participation increased, rising from 61.8% to 71.6% between the first and third assessment periods. The activity was most prevalent among young Black or mixed-race men with a high school education.
For Miranda, these results suggest that walking to work is more driven by daily necessity and urban mobility conditions than personal choice. "It's possible that factors such as access to public transportation, neighborhood characteristics, and socioeconomic conditions influence this type of commuting. However, our study found no statistically significant association between the social vulnerability index and this type of physical activity," she states.
According to the researchers, walking for commuting is a practice that could easily be incorporated into daily life. As such, it would contribute to public health in cities, as well as promote the use of public and shared transportation and reduce reliance on individual vehicles, such as cars.
The initial sample for the study was based on the São Paulo Municipal Health Survey (ISA-Capital), which provides data on health and service use to inform public policy. The subsequent longitudinal study, which followed the same population for ten years, was named the ISA Physical Activity and Environment Study.
The sample was stratified across five health zones in the capital, a metropolis characterized by various types of socio-spatial inequalities. One such inequality is that approximately 963,700 households, where 22.5% of the city's residents live, are located in areas of high or very high vulnerability, as indicated by the São Paulo Index of Social Vulnerability, developed by the SEADE (Statewide System for Data Analysis) Foundation.
While not the direct focus of this study, previous research has shown that socially vulnerable areas face environmental and urban challenges, such as greater exposure to heat islands. This occurs in outlying regions of the eastern, northern, and southern zones, which experience higher temperatures than other areas of the city (read more at pp.nexojornal.com.br/ponto-de-vista/2025/11/07/exposicao-ao-calor-a-face-invisivel-da-moradia-inadequada).
In this context, the authors emphasize the importance of integrated public policies that promote health equity and increase opportunities for physical activity, in line with the United Nations (UN) Sustainable Development Goals.
Florindo cites the implementation of new bike lanes in São Paulo in recent years as an example of such a policy, which has encouraged residents to cycle more. Another study coordinated by the professor found that the presence of bike lanes within 500 meters of a residence was a key factor in encouraging cycling (read more at agencia.fapesp.br/58622).
The group has used the sample data to cross-analyze other variables related to health and physical activity. According to Florindo, one of the current lines of research aims to link these factors to diet.
The study received support from FAPESP through the Thematic Project "Built Environment, Physical Activity, and Nutritional Status in Adults: A Longitudinal Study", as well as a research grant from the BRIDGE Global Health Partnership, which is funded by the University of Birmingham and the University of Illinois.
Source:
Journal reference:
Miranda, A. A. M., et al. (2026). Social inequalities in leisure-time and transport-related physical activity through the lens of intersectionality: 10-year longitudinal study in Brazil. International Journal of Behavioral Nutrition and Physical Activity. DOI: 10.1186/s12966-026-01900-5. https://link.springer.com/article/10.1186/s12966-026-01900-5
Facts Only
* A ten-year study tracked 978 participants from 2014 to 2024 in São Paulo, Brazil.
* Highly educated white men exercised more than other groups.
* Women from racial minorities with low education had the lowest leisure-time physical activity rates.
* Exercise associated with urban transportation, like walking to work, was distributed more evenly across population segments.
* Physical activity during leisure time was 51% among white men with higher education in the first survey and rose to 65% in the third phase.
* It was 29% among the most vulnerable group in the first survey and rose to 39% in the third phase.
* The prevalence of moderate physical activity per week in Brazil's adults was 42.3% in 2024, with 47.7% for men and 37.9% for women.
* There was no significant correlation between the social vulnerability index and physical activity while commuting.
* The initial sample was based on the São Paulo Municipal Health Survey (ISA-Capital).
* Researchers used the International Physical Activity Questionnaire (IPAQ) and a Multiple Jeopardy Index incorporating sex, race/skin color, and education.
Executive Summary
A ten-year longitudinal study of São Paulo residents revealed significant inequalities in leisure-time physical activity, noting a widening gap between social strata. Highly educated white men exhibited higher rates of physical activity compared to women from racial minority groups with lower educational attainment, who reported the lowest rates. While exercise related to urban transportation, such as walking to work, was distributed more evenly across population segments, leisure-time activity demonstrated clear stratification based on social characteristics.
The research used intersectional social identities to analyze how various social factors shape opportunities and experiences over time. The study suggests that engaging in physical activity is determined by environmental, structural, and social factors rather than solely individual motivation or choice. Furthermore, while walking for commuting showed no significant correlation with social vulnerability, the experience of women was complicated by factors such as domestic work distribution, wage levels, and safety concerns in public spaces.
The findings advocate for prioritizing policies targeting the most vulnerable groups to promote physical and recreational activities. Exercise provides substantial health benefits, yet global trends indicate a significant gap between recommended activity levels and actual participation worldwide. Brazil's data shows a disparity in meeting WHO recommendations across sexes, with men engaging in moderate activity at a higher rate than women, though overall activity increased over the ten-year period.
Full Take
The study establishes a clear mechanism through which structural inequalities manifest in physical activity: leisure exercise is heavily privileged by socially advantaged groups like white men with high education, whereas vulnerable groups, specifically Black, Brown, Asian, or Indigenous women with less schooling, face significant barriers rooted in domestic labor burdens and inadequate urban infrastructure. This intersectional view moves the focus from individual deficit to systemic constraint, demonstrating that physical activity access is not merely a matter of personal will but is heavily mediated by social structures.
The contrasting findings regarding leisure versus necessary movement (commuting) reveal a crucial distinction: structured necessity like walking to work is less susceptible to direct social stratification than discretionary leisure activity. This suggests that environmental and infrastructural factors—such as public transport access and neighborhood safety—are more determinative of physical life than individual motivation when discussing essential mobility.
The widening gap over the decade, where the most vulnerable groups saw smaller gains in participation while the advantaged group's rates increased substantially, reinforces the argument that social policies must focus on addressing structural disadvantages (like housing, safety, and infrastructure) to achieve health equity rather than relying solely on individual behavioral interventions. The challenge lies in operationalizing this finding into public policy that directly mitigates intersectional vulnerabilities.
Sentinel — Human
The text exhibits the density, specificity, and layered referencing characteristic of high-level academic reporting, strongly suggesting human authorship or rigorous journalistic synthesis.